Second Period of the Renaissance—Court of Mary of Hungary—Charles V a Fleming—Influence of Burgundian Court in Spain—Gilded Leather—Wealth of the Nobles in the Netherlands—Margaret of Valois at Namur—Antwerp in the Sixteenth Century—Christopher Plantin—Cornelius and James Floris—Jerome Cock—Hans and Paul de Vries—Jacques van Noye—Famous Designers—Characteristics of the Second Period of the Renaissance—Bedsteads, Tables and Chairs, Armoires, Cabinets and Chests—Porcelain, Glass and Glass Cupboards—Windows and Glass-painters—Guicciardini on the Artists of the Low Countries—Paul de Vries—Crispin de Passe the Elder—the Collaerts—Wood-carving—Music and Musical Instruments.

The first half of the sixteenth century in western Europe was completely filled with the ambitions, intrigues and wars of three powerful sovereigns—Charles V, Francis I and Henry VIII. Each of these was a chivalrous and luxurious monarch, devoted to the arts, science and literature. At their courts, the Renaissance received every encouragement; and at their death, half-way through the century, the Renaissance is generally regarded as entering on its second period. Henry and Francis both died in 1547, and Charles in 1558.

On the death of Margaret of Austria in 1530, Charles had intrusted the government of his Burgundian inheritance to his sister, Mary of Hungary. She was as liberal a patron of the arts as her aunt Margaret had been. She kept a splendid court, and was entirely in sympathy with the new school. The artists who were struggling against foreign influence could not look to Mary for support. The stream of Flemish pilgrims to Rome was constantly broadening; and the Romanists under her Regency gained disciples daily in Brussels, Mechlin, Liège and Antwerp.

At this period, the Low Countries bowed to no foreign authority in the art domain except the Italian. It must be borne in mind that Charles was a prince of the House of Burgundy, who had been brought up by his aunt, the daughter of the heiress of Burgundy, and the Emperor of Austria. He was a Fleming by birth and training. He was born at Ghent in 1500, and spent the first sixteen years of his life in the Netherlands. His pride in his natal town is well known. It is recorded in his famous pun—that he could put the whole of Paris in his Gant (glove). Spanish influence, therefore, did not affect the studios and workshops of the Flemish hives of industry till late in the century; for when Charles went to Spain, his train was full of Flemings, who influenced Spanish art; but we find no return influx of Spaniards to modify Flemish art. The splendid traditions of the Court of Burgundy still dominated in the Low Countries; and its unbending formality survives in Spain to-day. When Philip II joined his father Charles V in Brussels in 1548, his natural inclination led him readily to adopt the multitudinous equipage and minute and pompous etiquette of his Burgundian ancestors; all this he retained and transmitted to his descendants. Till the end of the century, the Flemish Renaissance was a domestic development of purely Italian inspiration. The principal things that the Netherlands obtained from the Iberian peninsula were ornamental leather and Oriental wares, through Lisbon.

The Renaissance gave a great impetus to gilded leathers, the manufacture of which was still flourishing at Cordova and increasing in the Netherlands. It would seem that workmen emigrated from Spain to other countries. Tomaso Gazoni in his Piazza universale (1560) writes regarding gilded leather: “Some people think that the origin of this noble work is due to Spain, because from that country come the best masters of modern times who have obtained the greatest renown in this kind of work.” A native of Cordova, Ambrosio Morales, writing in 1575, says: “This manufacture brings much wealth to the town, and also gives a fine appearance to its principal streets. In truth, when these stamped, painted and gilded leathers are spread out on large tables to dry in the sun they make a beautiful sight, for the streets are adorned with the greatest splendour and variety.”

The inventories of the period show us how important was the use of leather. Margaret of Austria has at Mechlin in 1527 several pieces of “tapisserie de marroquin,” as we have noted.

The gilded leather was often called or bazané and regarded as a mark of opulence. For instance, Pierre Binard, a tapestry-worker and author of a collection of Noëls, dedicated to Marguerite, wife of Henri IV, says in one of his verses:

The nobles vied with royalty in luxury, and the beautiful tapestries, furniture, gold and silver work, enamels, etc., found ready sale. Such magnificent homes as the Counts of Egmont excited the anger of the populace; and those of many successful artists and rich merchants were hardly inferior.

The clergy did not suffer either. Granvelle, for example, made Bishop of Arras, and chief adviser to Philip II in all the affairs of the Netherlands, had a magnificent establishment. His furniture, tapestry and other personalty amounted to no less than £50,000.

Contemporary travellers are constantly speaking of the startling splendours they encountered in the Low Countries. When Marguerite of Valois, Queen of Navarre, who was certainly used to splendour, went to Spa in 1577, with the excuse to drink the waters, but really to intrigue in Hainault so as to advance the interests of her brother, the Duke d’Alençon, in the Netherlands, she was received at Namur by Don Juan of Austria. When this gallant escort, who rode by her litter, escorted the Queen to her lodgings, she was “astonished at the magnificence of the apartments.”^[3] A superb hall gorgeously furnished led into a series of chambers. The bedroom and bed prepared for the Queen were hung with superb tapestries, which, appropriately enough, represented the Battle of Lepanto.

Antwerp now becomes the centre of commerce, and the town expressed so much wealth and was so crowded with ships that when the Ambassador from Venice, Marino Cavalli, landed on the Scheldt, in 1551, he exclaimed in amazement: “Venice is surpassed!” In 1567, Guicciardini wrote: “One word alone can define the number of trades exercised in Antwerp; it is the word all!”

In 1560, Antwerp numbered three hundred and sixty painters and sculptors: artists and decorators flocked thither, and many new industries were likewise attracted; for instance, Piccol Passo of Urbino established a factory for Italian majolica; Amould van Ort of Nimeguen, the celebrated stained-glass maker, transplanted his workshops; Jahn de Lame of Cremona, Murano glass; and Christopher Plantin of Tours (1514–89), his printing-presses, from which so many books of decorative design were issued. He settled in Antwerp in 1549; but from 1576 to the present day, the business has been conducted in the house known as the Musée Plantin-Moretus, in the Marché du Vendredi. Plantin’s son-in-law Moretus or Moerentorf, succeeded him. In 1876, this house, with its antique furniture, pictures, tapestries and other collections, was bought by the city of Antwerp for a Museum. The greater part of the furniture, staircases, mantelpieces, etc., date from the seventeenth century; but despite this fact and many restorations, this house affords an interesting picture of the dwelling and office of a rich Fleming of the sixteenth century. The printing offices are untouched, and two of the rooms are hung with gilt Spanish leather of the sixteenth century.

In the last chapter we brought the masters of Decorative Art down to the middle of the sixteenth century. After these came Cornelius and James Floris, whose family name was de Vriendt. The head of the family, Cornelius de Vriendt, a stone-cutter, used the name of his grandfather, Floris de Vriendt, a member of the Guild des Quatres-Couronnes in 1476. Cornelius had four sons: John, a potter, who settled in Spain; Frans Floris (1518?-70), a painter; James (1524–81), a celebrated glass-painter; and Cornelius (1514–74), a sculptor and architect, who was responsible for the Antwerp Town Hall, the house of the Hanseatic League, the tabernacle of Léan and the rood-loft of the Cathedral of Tournay.

James was also a skilful engraver, and was particularly noted for his panels, or compartments, which in his day were such favourite designs. His drawings were edited by Jerome Cock, and obtained a great success.

Jerome Cock produced a great deal of decorative design in the second half of this century. His figures are graceful and well disposed, and his draperies and garlands of fruits and flowers are charmingly effective. Two of his designs for goldsmiths’ work are reproduced on Plate XIX and Plate XX.

Cornelius and James Floris developed a new style, still known in Flanders as the Floris style. The school included many able designers whose names still survive, including that of Vredemann de Vries. The ornamentation is principally composed of “cuirs” cut into various shapes and rolled, accompanied by a mixture of figures, animals, birds, flowers and fruits, all tied together by ornamental motives, ribbons, draperies, etc., a form of decoration which the Flemish masters carried to its highest point of perfection.

It was the custom of the day for these masters of ornament to supply designs for furniture when “the newest thing out” was required. Their designs that have survived consist chiefly of grotesques, cartouches, “cuirs,” panels, compartments, friezes, trophies, “pendeloques” and other goldsmiths’ motives. Contemporary with Floris were Hans Liefrinck (1510–80); Cornelis Matsys (1500–56); Jerome Cock (1510–70); John Landenspelder (b. 1511); Adrian Collaert (b. 1520); Hans Collaert (1540–1622). These all worked at Antwerp.

The most famous designers of the Renaissance, however, were the De Vrieses, father and son, Hans and Paul. Hans Vredemann de Vries, painter, architect, sculptor, designer, and poet, was born at Leeuwarden in Friesland (whence his name) in 1527. For five years he studied in Amsterdam in the studio of Reijnier Gerritsz, the painter, and he studied architecture under Coeck of Alost. His pictures are valued highly and are crowded with architectural details. He also studied painting on glass. Owing to his special aptitudes and varied knowledge, as well as the skill with which he treated the different styles of architecture and ornamentation, he may be said to sum up in himself the great period of the Flemish Renaissance.

Vredemann published a great many collections of designs that are highly valued for the interesting studies they present of the Flemish Art of the Renaissance. His sons, Paul and Solomon, followed his style.

De Vries was famous for his leather ornamentation (cuirs) and his encoinçons, which apply to oval frames and ornament the corners of twelve of his twenty-one oval plates among the fifty composing the collection, Variae Architecturae formae a Joanne Vredemanni Vriesio, magno artis hujus studiosorum commodo inventae. (See Figs. 17 and 18.)

In his own country, he was called the king of architects. He may be called the Dutch Du Cerceau. He was contemporary with Du Cerceau; and was apparently greatly influenced by the work of the latter, or it may be that they both got their inspiration from the same Italian source. A comparison of the work of the two masters will show individuality in De Vries. His designs are not so light and graceful as the Frenchman’s. Besides all kinds of architecture, gardens, wells, fountains, vases, armour and decorative work for goldsmiths, he designed Differents Pourtraicts de Menuiserie à sçavoir, Portaux, Bancs, Tables, Escabelles, Buffets, Frises, Corniches, Licts de camp, Ornements à prendre à l’essuoir les mains, Fontaines à laver les mains. This collection of designs appeared about 1580, and forms a most valuable record for those who desire to study the style of the early Renaissance in the Netherlands. It is noticeable that the change is not so much in the general form of the furniture as in the ornamentation. As an example, let us take the bedroom (Plate X). This was published in 1580; but it evidently belongs to the transitional period, since the furniture reveals almost as many Gothic as Renaissance features.

It will be noticed that De Vries expressly styles his design a modern bedroom; so that it deserves study as the latest novelty about the middle of the sixteenth century. The first thing that strikes one is that though the ornamental details of Gothic tracery have almost disappeared, yet the linen-fold in the panelling is everywhere. Even the dressoir on the left with its Classic columns and spiralled caryatides has Gothic panels; and the presses between the fireplace and the window have Gothic panels with a Renaissance daïs. The long heavy chests that serve as benches also belong to Mediaeval days. The massive table looks transitional also. It is also to be noticed that the furniture cannot yet be designated as “moveables”; it is still an integral part of the carpentry work that lines the walls of the room. The chair beside the bed is the sole note that tones down its severity. At the time the plate was published (1580), the Renaissance was in full flower, and its interest for us lies chiefly in the disposition of the furniture and the evidence it supplies of Gothic tenacity. The floor is tessellated diagonally with squares of wood or stone. The chimney-piece with its funnel-shaped top is essentially the same as represented in miniatures of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The credence or dressoir is opposite to the door, the bed, well protected by woodwork and curtains against draughts, is close to the fireplace, and the table in front of the window. A general effect of coldness is noticeable, due to the almost total lack of upholstery; but this is doubtless owing to the artist’s intent to emphasize the woodwork.

Though De Vries was the most important designer of furniture in the Netherlands during the sixteenth century, he was by no means the only one to influence the taste of the day. There were many architects, goldsmiths and engravers whose designs contributed to the development of the Renaissance style. One of these was Jacques van Noye. He was employed by Cardinal Granvelle, Bishop of Arras, to embellish the palace in Besançon, built by his father, Sebastian van Noye, also a notable architect.

In 1550, Van Noye became architect of Philip II; and called to Spain by the King, died in Madrid. One of his important works was the palace that the Cardinal erected at Brussels on the Coperbeke.

Other designers in decorative art who lived during the second half of the sixteenth century were Mark Geraerts (1530–90); Hendrick van Schoel; Martin de Vos (1531–1603); G. Tielt (1580–1630); Cornelius Grapheus (1549-?); Baltazar Silvius (circ. 1554); Guilhelmus de la Queweelerie (circ. 1560); Peter Miricenis (1520–66); Hans Bol (1535–93); Abraham de Bruyn (1538-?); Crispin de Passe, the Elder (1536-?); Peter van der Borcht (1540–1608); Peter Baltens (1540–79); Paul van Wtanvael (circ. 1570); Nicholas de Bruyn (1560–1635); Clement Perrete (circ. 1569); Assuerus van Londerseel (b. 1548); Jerome Wierix (b. 1551); John Wierix (b. 1550); John Sadeler (1550–1610); Raphael Sadeler (1555–1628); Ægidius Sadeler (1570–1629); Dominic Custode (b. 1560); Ger. Groningus; Cornelis Galle (1570–1641); Philip Galle (1537–1612); Theodore Galle (b. 1560); Cornelis Dankherts (b. 1561); John Sambuci (circ. 1574); Francis Sweert (circ. 1690); Jodocus Hondius (1563–1611); James Hannervogt, and some anonymous engravers.

In the second period of the Renaissance, the general effect is more severe and geometrical; the projections are more restrained, and the general form of furniture more rectangular. The vertical lines are more conspicuous than the horizontal lines; and columns with elongated shafts and delicate flutings or grooves replace human figures that in the first period of the Renaissance act as uprights and supports. The bed on Plate XIV is a good example of the second period.

There is also during the second period a great, and often elegant, use of ceramics. Some pieces of furniture, particularly cabinets, are decorated with incrustations of stones, amber, enamelled work and even Venetian glass.

Gothic decoration still lingers for a time in the ordinary bedsteads (see Plate X) but those of the new fashion show all the popular ornaments of the Renaissance. Caryatides sometimes appear as columns; and sometimes and ever more frequently as time wears on, slender pillars cut in the form of balusters, lances or distaffs, often grooved, and more or less decorated with carving. Later in the century, the columns are frequently enveloped in the same material as the hangings, which become so important that the sculptor and joiner give place to the upholsterer and embroiderer. The beds are so high, or built so high with mattresses, that it is impossible to get into them without the aid of bed-steps.

A glance at Plate II will inform us that the bed of the fifteenth century depends more for its effect upon the curtains and other draperies than on the framework. In the time of the Renaissance, we find the bedstead of supreme importance. It is carved in the richest fashion, and is often enriched with gilding and painting; it is also adorned with marquetry. The mattresses, bolsters and pillows are of down or feathers, the sheets and blankets of finest linen and wool, for which Flanders is famous; and the hangings are of silk, velvet, tapestry, serge, or gilded leather. The Renaissance bed is never allowed to stand in an alcove: it is far too handsome a piece of furniture for that. Its canopy, often richly carved, is rectangular and exactly the size of the bed, which is large; and it is no longer suspended by cords from the ceiling, but rests on carved or grooved columns. It is usually finished with a projecting cornice, variously ornamented, and to this cornice the curtains are attached. In Fig. 19 and Plate XII, we see exactly how these curtains were hung. These beds, from engravings by J. Stradan (1578), also show us how the curtains were looped up in the daytime, how the square pillows were placed formally at the foot of the bed, and the shape of the round bolster. These beds could be completely enclosed by curtains.

The bed in Fig. 19 is interesting as an example of a Renaissance bed without supporting corner posts. The canopy and curtains are evidently suspended from the ceiling by cords in the old style, for there is no woodwork visible above the carved head-board. This is very unusual and is doubly interesting as the bed in Plate XII, by the same artist, is massive in form, and the dome is supported by strong Classic columns. In the latter design the curtains are looped around the columns and a pillow is placed on the bolster at the back. The canopy is dome-shaped and the top of each column is decorated with a “pomme,” destined to develop and survive as a decoration for the bedstead. The head-board is quite ornate, and the bedstead, like that in Fig. 19, stands upon a low platform.

A similar dome-topped bed appears in the inner room in the background of Plate XXIV.

One of De Vries’ designs for a bed is reproduced on Plate XIII. It has a heavy panelled head-board surmounted by a pediment with pommes; and the four supporting posts consist of turned caryatides. The bedstead proper that holds the mattress and other bedding is supported independently by vase-shaped legs. The frieze of the canopy is decorated with scroll-work. In this style of bed, the curtains did not hide the elaborately carved woodwork; they hung from the cornice and feet inside the outer posts. The hangings could thus be very sumptuous without detracting from the effect of the carved woodwork. Plate XIV, which represents a beautiful bed of this period, massive and richly carved, shows the same arrangement of curtains. It should be borne in mind that wherever the framework is richly carved, curtains were never intended to hide it. This magnificent specimen, from the Rijks Museum, Amsterdam, is of beautiful proportions. The ornamentation is chaste and in perfect harmony, consisting of carved panels, cornice and Corinthian columns. The woodwork is walnut and the hangings are pale blue damask.

The Plantin Museum in Antwerp contains an armoire and a bed after the designs of De Vries.

Another De Vries bed in the now dispersed Minard of Ghent collection had a canopy and balusters and the central part was arranged in the form of an armoire with two shutters decorated with low reliefs of religious subjects. Upon the upper gallery was a cartouche held by two angels, and on this cartouche the inscription, “Vriese inv. 1565.”

An interesting example of Renaissance work is the bedstead on Plate XI. The distaff or lance-shaped columns shoot boldly upward from a floral calix that stands on the head of a mermaid at the foot, and the head of a merman at the head of the bed. A frame for a dome-shaped canopy is connected with the four posts by a tester. The bedstead is panelled and stands on four large square blocks. In the centre of the headboard is a cartouche for a coat-of-arms; in the centre of the footboard the head of a cherub is carved. The peculiar characteristic of the decoration of this piece of furniture is that the scrolls are all carved in the shape of the human ear. This is an early example of the genre auriculaire, which was destined to become popular in Flanders and Germany. On this piece of furniture the ear is omnipresent—on the head and foot board, on the sweeps of the canopy and on the square feet—wriggling, squirming and unrestful.

Folding-beds are frequently mentioned in the inventories. Margaret of Austria (1523), had two wooden camp or folding-beds.

The Flemings were particularly skilful in the production of tables and chairs. We have now come a long distance from the simple board and trestles of the past, for we find dining-tables, writing-tables, bureau-tables, card-tables, chair-tables, bench-tables (tables à banc), round tables, square tables, oval tables, tables that stand on one foot, tables that stand on three feet, and tables of walnut, oak, maple, cedar, cypress, marble and even silver. We also find tables of mosaic work and of marquetry and tables beautifully carved and embellished with gold.

The drawing-table was much in vogue. It was composed of extra leaves superimposed on lower ones that could be drawn forward so that the top leaves could fall into the space they made and form with the lower leaves, thus lengthened, one continuous surface. The mechanism by which these leaves were lengthened and dropped was very intricate and ingenious. Jacques Wecker, a physician of Colmar, in his treatise De Secretis (Bâle, 1582), says: “One must not despise the make of these tables that I have often seen in Ghent in Flanders.”

The tables designed by De Vries and reproduced in Figs. 20, 21 and 22, are a great advance on the one that appears in his Cubiculum. (Plate X.) The form is much the same as those in Figs. 20 and 21, but the linenfold has given way to panels and pilasters of pure Renaissance character and the corner supports of sphinxes and animals and vases have no memory of the Gothic age. Fig. 22 shows us a table of an entirely different character. It is much lighter and has drawers. With its foot-rails it is well adapted for a dining-table.

A much more ornate specimen of this period called a “fan-shaped table,” (“table à l’éventail”) is owned by the Dijon Museum. It is of Burgundian workmanship. The support, which still shows traces of gilding, is formed of an eagle with outspread wings standing between two winged chimaera with lions’ paws, these paws connected with a straining-rail, or stretcher. The open-work shelf is ornamented with leaves and a mascaron, and the two upper and lower straining rails are ornamented with a very clearly defined and handsome decoration. The top of the table is surrounded by a thread of marquetry.

Folding-tables were also in use; in Margaret of Austria’s inventory, mention is made of “a little table in the Spanish fashion which opens and closes.”

Chairs are still heavy and carved more or less richly. Two typical specimens appear in Plate XII. As shown in these examples, the seats and backs were often covered with stamped leather, velvet, silk, or some woollen material and ornamented with tassels. The covers are tacked to the frame by means of large-headed nails that also form part of the decoration. A chair and footstool by Vredemann de Vries, of very characteristic model, are shown in Fig. 23. The chair is three-cornered, with a triangular seat, and the legs are connected with straining-rails. It much resembles the voyeuse of which Cardinal Mazarin had several; and which was again popular in the days of Louis XVI, in France and elsewhere. It was essentially a chair for a man, who faced the back and rested his arms on the top rail.

A Flemish chair of the second half of the sixteenth century is reproduced in Figs. 24 and 25. This is pure Renaissance in its simplest and certainly its least elegant form. The legs consist of Doric columns connected by stretchers close to the ground. The back slants, and is of somewhat confused carved decoration consisting of a mascaron and Classic architectural and floral motives.

When not built in the panels of the room, the armoire bears a very close likeness to the large double cabinet with doors, which is, as we have seen, merely a chest-upon-chest, and which we shall find developing into the great Dutch kas of the seventeenth century. Plate XV shows the great double cabinet, or armoire, of the Renaissance with carved panels, pillars and caryatides. This stands on ball feet. It is of the same period as the bed represented in Plate XIV.

A magnificent specimen of the late sixteenth century, now in the Musée des Arts Décoratifs, Paris, is reproduced in Plate XVIII. This is in two stories and is frankly architectural. The doors of the armoire, or cabinet, are decorated to look like windows, and the niches and pilasters lend their aid in making the front of this piece of furniture look like the façade of a handsome Renaissance residence.

Cabinets or armoires designed by De Vries are reproduced in Plate XIX and Plate XX. As usual, we have a large choice in central and side supports, pediments and panels. There is a good variety of mascarons for the cabinet-maker to select from. It will be noticed that the “cuirs,” so popular with the designers of the period, enter largely into the decoration of the doors and drawers.

Spanish influence was now making itself felt. Hispano-Flemish carving appears on many a panel and drawer front towards the end of this century. Characteristic carving of this style is shown in Fig. 26 and Fig. 27.

Perhaps of all kinds of furniture, Flanders excelled in making cabinets. Antwerp was especially renowned for them. The cabinet is, of course, an object of special luxury, for the display of little articles of value possessed only by the rich. Whether carved or inlaid, its shelves were lined with crimson velvet, cloth of gold, green taffeta, or beautifully tooled leather; and very frequently silvered ribbon twined into a kind of geometrical lattice-work into the initials or monogram of the owner of the cabinet was hung behind the glass and supplied with hooks from which jewels, watches, pocket-mirrors and other pretty trinkets were suspended. A cabinet collection in the sixteenth century included watches, jewels, rings, bracelets, necklaces, pearls from the Orient, gold and silver work, buttons, perfumed gloves, costly musk and amber, scent-bottles, pomanders on handsome chains, small scissors, pocket knives, pocket mirrors, coral beads, rosaries of rock-crystal, little books, eau de Damas, eau de rose, eau d’oeillet, and other delicate essences, medals, little pictures, rare stones, fans, etc.

French noblemen had such a fancy for collecting Flemish cabinets that Henri IV sent French workmen to the Netherlands to learn the art of making these choice pieces of furniture, and particularly the trick of carving in ebony. On their return, he established them in the Louvre. The first was Laurent Stabre; another was Pierre Boulle (uncle of the great André Charles Boulle), supposed to be of Flemish origin. Jean Macé, who called himself “menuisier-ébéniste de Blois,” was also given a studio in the Louvre, “on account of his long practice of this art in the Low Countries, and the skill he has shown in his cabinet-work in ebony and other woods of various colours that he has presented to the Regent Queen.”

Another cabinet-maker who lived in the Louvre was Pierre Golle, a native of the Netherlands, whose name was originally Goler, and who left Holland at Mazarin’s request to settle in Paris. He made various artistic pieces for the Dauphin, the great Cardinal and other patrons of art.

Burgundy was also remarkable for its cabinets, and made a specialty of wall-cabinets that hung at the sides of a room on invisible supports. A famous specimen of Burgundian work was bought several years ago at the Soltykoff sale by the Baron Sellières, for no less than 16,500 francs! It was a large double cabinet, the two parts of nearly equal dimensions, both ornately carved with satyrs, fruits, garlands, palms, Tritons and Nereids.

The chest is as important as ever. It is found in every room in the house. In it are kept household linen, clothing and many treasures and gifts. When the top is flat, in which case the article is still called huche, it often serves as a seat. Although the chest is finely carved in the sixteenth century, it never attains the sumptuousness nor the delicacy of either dressoir or cabinet; it always remains a robust piece of furniture. It is decorated with architectural motives, fantastic arabesques, panels ornamented with bas-reliefs representing Biblical or mythological scenes, allegorical subjects, pilasters in the form of terms, and not unfrequently mascarons. Sometimes chests are covered with stamped leather and sometimes decorated with marquetry.

Flemish chests were in great demand in France. In an inventory, we learn that Marguerite des Bordes, Bordeaux, had, in 1589, a “bahut de Flandres,” barred with iron bands, two locks and keys; George Beaunon, a merchant of Bordeaux, had, in 1607, “more than one coffre de Flandres,” garnished with bands of white iron and three little “cassettes de boys de Flandres” were owned by Nicholas Lemerotel of St. Malo in 1638.

Porcelain as yet was very rare, though kings and rich nobles had a few pieces of this ware on their shelves. Philip II had quite a respectable collection of ceramics, and wealthy Flemings were always fond of foreign and domestic wares of this nature. Palissy was at work and his productions were highly prized. The Netherlands had a brisk trade by sea with Portugal, and through Lisbon considerable quantities of porcelain were finding their way into the cupboards of the wealthy. Venetian glass also was highly prized, so that we are not astonished to find De Vries devoting a good deal of attention to designing vitrines, or small cupboards with glass fronts, for the preservation and safe display of glass, china and earthenware. In many instances, these were elaborately carved with all the Renaissance ornamentation. Four handsome glass cupboards or vitrines, designed by De Vries, are shown in Plate XVI and Plate XVII. In the centre of the broken pediments, we see Bacchus and Cupid. The supporting sides consist of Classic columns, pilasters or caryatides; and all the decoration is in harmony with the rest of the furniture of this period.

On looking over the pictures by the great artists of the Netherlands, we cannot help noticing their delight in painting glass. The play of light and shade, and direct and reflected rays in flasks, bottles, vases, goblets and wine glasses of varied form strongly appealed to the great masters of genre and still life.

The Flemings of the sixteenth century undoubtedly manufactured much glass for home consumption and export. England took all they and Germany and France could supply. Queen Elizabeth tried to attract glass-blowers to settle in her realm. The first recorded name to accept the invitation is that of Cornelius de Launoy. In 1567, the Queen sent to the Low Countries for Jean Quarré, a native of Antwerp, and other workers in glass, to establish a factory for making the same kind of glass as existed in France.

The windows not only of churches but of civic and palatial buildings were beautified with the work of great artists. Even in more modest dwellings, the windows of the hall, studio, or living-room were decorated with the coat-of-arms of the owner.

Designs for painted windows formed by no means an unimportant part of the activities of a great artist; in fact, they held the same rank as cartoons for tapestry. In 1567, Guicciardini notes as follows:

“But it is also proper to mention some eminent artists in encaustic or painting on glass, inasmuch as this department has also its pretensions to importance; and Vasari has observed that the Flemings have brought it to perfection. For, not to dwell on the beauty and vivacity of the colours, they invented the mode of burning them into the glass, so as to be safe from the corrosion of water, wind and even time; which was not the case when they were only tempered with gum and some other mixture. And the Flemings also invented the manner of making leaden casements.

“The first eminent painters on glass were Arnold van Hordt of Nymwegen, and a citizen of Antwerp, a great imitator of the Italian school and the first inventor of the art of burning colours into crystalline glass. Theodore Jacobs Felaet, an artist of eminent invention; Theodore Stass of Campen; John Ack of Antwerp, who executed the windows in St. Gudule’s Church and the Chapel of the Sacrament at Brussels; Cornelis of Bois-le-Duc.

“There still flourish Cornelis Dale, who, with singular art, burns any colours, not only into glass, but into crystal, so that they appear like painting in oil; and his designs are elegant; Jodoc Vereg, a skilful artist, employed by the Emperor; James Florence, all of Antwerp. John Stass, son of the above Theodore and the heir of his father’s talents; John Zele of Utrecht. Nor in architecture and sculpture have excellent artists been wanting in the Netherlands. Such were Sebastian Oje of Utrecht, the celebrated architect to Charles V, and afterwards to Philip his son. He, to his great praise, planned the fortifications of Hesdin, Charlmont, and Philipville, strong towns on the frontiers. William Keur of Gouda, a good architect, a superior sculptor. Among others were John Dale, a sculptor and poet; Lucas van Leyden, a celebrated engraver (1495–1533); William of Antwerp, a famous architect. There still flourish James Bruck of St. Omers, a man of noble birth and an excellent sculptor and architect, who, while the Queen of Hungary governed the Netherlands, planned Bossu and Marimont and some grand buildings. John Bologne of Douay, his disciple, now employed by the Duke of Florence. John Minsheeren of Ghent, an excellent architect and sculptor, whose son Lucas, is an eminent painter, the inventor of many things and excels in poetry; Matthew Mandemaker of Antwerp, a famous sculptor, in the service of the King of the Romans; Cornelis Florence, brother of Francis, an excellent sculptor and architect, diligent and attentive, who has the praise of first bringing from Italy the art of accurately rendering the insides of caves called by the Italians grotescas. Henry Paschen of Antwerp, an excellent architect, who designed the Palace and office of the Hansa towns in Antwerp, and was afterwards called to London to plan the Exchange; Lambert Suaf of Liège, a good architect and engraver; James Iongeling of Antwerp, an excellent sculptor and statuary, who lately made those wonderful brass statues of the seven planets and Bacchus which the magistrates of Antwerp presented to the Prince of Parma; William Paludan, brother of the above Henry, a great and accurate sculptor, whose son Raphael is also of high repute; John Sart of Nymegen, an excellent sculptor, as are Simon of Delft and Jodoc Janson of Amsterdam; George Robins of Yperen, Theodore Volcart Cornhert and Philip Galle, both of Haarlem, exquisite engravers.”

Guicciardini continues: “The others it would be prolix to enumerate,” and informs us that most of these artists visit Italy. “Some return loaded with wealth and honour to their native country,” while “others go to Great Britain and Germany, but chiefly to Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Poland and even Muscovy, not to mention those who, allured by honours and rewards, visit France, Spain and Portugal.”

The younger De Vries (Paul), was born at Antwerp in 1554. He designed Plusieurs menuiseries comme Portaulx, Garderobes, Buffets, Chalicts, Tables, Arches, Selles, Bancs, Escabelles, Rouleaux à pendre, touailles, Casses à vertes et beaucoup d’autres ouvrages. The style of furniture shown in the works of the De Vrieses lasted till Rubens arose.