A Raisin-grower’s Residence at Fresno.
—The nearness to the ocean modifies the climate much. The temperature is more even all the year round than anywhere else on the coast where raisins are grown. The extreme of heat is 105 degrees; in fact, July 27, 1889, it was 104 degrees Fahrenheit in the shade, while in the winter it seldom goes lower than 28 degrees Fahrenheit, and indeed very, very rarely as low as that. In many places there is no frost at all, except, perhaps, one in April, which, of course, cannot but prove damaging to the vines. This absence of heavy frost, which is beneficial to every other semi-tropical product, is not favorable to the vine. The grape requires heavy frost to become dormant. The farther south we go the less frost and the less grapes, at least of the Asiatic kind. There are, as we know, native grapes even in tropical countries, but they are adapted to their surroundings and cannot be considered here. The proximity to the coast modifies the air considerably. With 100 degrees Fahrenheit in the shade, which is an exception here, I felt as warm as I do in the San Joaquin valley with the mercury at 114;—the two extremes in both places affect us just the same. The air here is certainly much more moist, which again must have a marked effect upon the vine, and in no small degree promote fungoid growths, or parasites generally. In this respect, then, the coast vineyard must certainly be at a disadvantage. The fog is not an unusual visitor in the district between the coast and the foothills, which, in fact, covers the whole area ever planted in raisin grapes. For days in succession every morning is foggy, and the fog condenses on the leaves of the trees and falls under them in real showers, making the adjoining and underlying road wet. For a few days again the sun will rise bright, again to be followed by foggy mornings. By from nine to eleven o’clock the fog is again gone and the sun shines brightly. Every evening and morning there is a heavy dew, and every branch, leaf or grass is then dripping wet. Several mornings when the fog was in I found the thermometer at 62 degrees Fahrenheit, while at noon it rose to over 100.
—The soil here is the very best, and I doubt if the same fine quality of soil is found anywhere else in California over the same extended territory. I ride for miles and miles, everywhere the finest and richest loam of a gray color, sometimes a little drawing towards slate blue, sometimes again towards yellowish. It is immensely rich, and can hardly be improved. There is, however, especially near Orange, a different kind of soil consisting of the sand loam, but intermixed with very coarse gravel. This soil is warmer but consequently not so rich. The grapes ripen on it two weeks earlier, but yield only one-half as much as those on the richest loam along the creeks. The vines planted here were alone the Muscat of Alexandria. Strangely enough I find no traces of Sultanas or currant, which latter, it seems, should be especially adapted to the coast climate.
—In planting a vineyard, rooted vines were seldom used. Cuttings grew so readily and so well that they were much preferred. I am told that five per cent loss was unusual. It must be remarked that the moister is the air the better it is for any kind of cuttings. The moisture sustains and nourishes the wood while it is making roots. As to distances, I remarked nothing new. Eight by eight or eight by ten feet seems the generally adopted way. The nature of the soil and climate make higher cultivation a necessity. McPherson Bros., who packed the largest quantity of raisins and owned the finest vineyards, told me that they plowed and cross-plowed and cultivated from fourteen to sixteen times every season; in fact they never ceased working the ground. The pruning was begun in December, or as soon as the leaves began to turn and fall. To begin with, only a few spurs were left on every vine, and on every spur three eyes, including the bottom eyes, but experience taught that that way was not the very best. Gradually more space was given the vines, and now from fifteen to twenty spurs to a vine in full bearing is considered proper. Summer pruning is only practiced in some of the vineyards where the ground is quite wet. The most profitable vineyards were irrigated. The nearer the coast the more moisture there is in the soil. Thus three miles west of Santa Ana the ground is always moist enough to grow grapes, but as we come nearer the foothills to the east, the moisture is farther down. At Tustin, Orange, and especially at McPherson, irrigation was practiced in all first-class vineyards. Some were irrigated in the winter only, and this was considered the best; others again were irrigated also once in summer,—a practice the best vineyardmen considered unnecessary and even injurious. I found land near the town of Santa Ana moist one inch below the surface, where no irrigation had even been practiced. Sulphuring was used everywhere to counteract the oidium. For this purpose powdered sulphur was dusted through the vines as soon as the grapes were as large as small shot. From three to four sulphurings were used every year with a week between each. Sulphuring for the colure or dropping of grapes was not known; in fact I am informed that this colure was seldom known. Besides mildew, there are few enemies to the vine here. Grasshoppers, leaf-hoppers and grape moths have never been known to molest the vines. When the late vine-plague struck the country the vineyardists were entirely unused to fight any enemy of the vines besides the oidium. Sunscald of the berries was not known.
—The grapes begin to ripen in the end of August, say about the twenty-fifth, on the gravelly soil, but on the cooler and richer bottom land very much later, or about the middle of September. The harvest then begins; the grapes are picked on trays two and a half by three feet and placed to dry in the sun; the drying takes two or three weeks or more, and is accomplished with some difficulty. Two years the grapes had to be carried out to the Mojave desert, to be dried there. The trays are placed among the vines in such a way that the trays from three rows are placed in one. To protect them from the fog and dew, they are covered with canvas. This is done in two ways. One way is to put small pegs on one side of the trays. The long canvas is furnished at intervals with rings, which are slipped over the pegs and thus held steady on one side. In the daytime the other end of the canvas is simply thrown back over the pegs; in the night-time the canvas is again turned over the trays, resting directly on the grapes. The other and better way is to run three wires along the row of trays, one on each side of the trays. The canvas is furnished with rings on each long side, which are made to run on the wire. The center wire is run a little higher up, and here and there simply supported by posts. It takes comparatively little time every evening to run the canvas along the wires and cover the trays. The expense is considerable, both in furnishing and preparing the canvas, and in maintaining and operating it. The peculiar climatic conditions of the district, however, necessitate some such contrivance for the drying of the grapes. The vines seldom bear a second crop of any importance. Sometimes in October the district is visited by a warm and dry desert wind called the Santa Ana wind. It comes from the cañon of the Santa Ana river, and originates, no doubt, in the Mojave desert, and rising high up in the air is again precipitated over the hills on the lowlands towards the ocean. This Santa Ana wind is always welcome. It hastens the drying of the grapes just as the Terral or land winds from the plains of La Mancha hasten the drying of the grapes of Malaga in Spain.
—The yield is quite small on the gravelly soil, at the most being three tons of green grapes to the acre, on richer land from six to seven tons, and in rare instances ten tons to the acre. I heard of one vineyard where the owner had sold from twenty acres of Muscatels thirty-three tons of raisins and fifty-six tons of green grapes, equal to about 155 tons from the lot. Another lot of three-year Muscatels bore ten tons to the acre,—indeed a very unusual yield anywhere for Muscatels. I hear reports of some wonderful yields and high profits, but am informed by the most experienced and trustworthy that $125 per acre is an average profit which can be relied upon year after year. The first Muscat vines were planted near Orange, now the station of McPherson, about 1873, by McPherson Bros. The acreage in grapevines in the Orange county district was about 8,000 acres; but probably over half of it is wine grapes. The highest output of raisins was 170,000 boxes of twenty-pounds each.
—The El Cajon and Sweetwater valleys are the raisin centers of San Diego county. The former contains about four thousand acres of Muscat vines, the latter about five hundred acres. Magnificent-looking Muscat grapes are also grown within three miles of San Diego. Escondido is by many pronounced superior for raisin grapes to any of the other places; but El Cajon is the present center of the raisin industry, and is likely to remain so for years. The raisin-growing section of the two valleys lies from about fifteen to seventeen miles from the coast line, and at an altitude of from 450 to 500 feet. The arable land in El Cajon valley contains 50,000 acres, or perhaps less, and consists of the rolling bottom of the valley, but which can in no way be classed as bottom land. The land partakes more of the characteristics of mesa or upland, and extends on all sides, slightly undulating upon the sides of the hills. Lower hills and behind them, again, higher hills surround the valley, and the high peaks beyond the Cuyamaca Mountains reach 4,500 feet or more. None of these hills or mountains in sight are covered with timber of any kind, and even the valleys are without the usual sycamores. Only in the very narrow bottom of the creek is there a vegetation of willows and shrubbery.
—The rainfall of the valley varies considerably. It has been known to be as little as six inches and as much as twenty, the average probably being about twelve inches, distributed as generally elsewhere in California,—during the winter months. In summer time it seldom rains,—perhaps a shower in two or three years. September is the warmest month, or at least the month with the greatest number of warm days. The highest temperature reached in the shade in El Cajon is 105 degrees Fahrenheit, and in Sweetwater valley 108, and the coldest in the winter twenty-four degrees Fahrenheit on the upper mesa land, while on the lower land, close to the river, the temperature falls low enough to kill orange trees, probably somewhere about eighteen degrees Fahrenheit. September is freer from fog than any other month. During the other summer months there is fog in the morning two days out of three. The fog, however, is warm and pleasant to all but consumptives, but, nevertheless, leaves behind a soaking dew on all vegetation, and is even heavy enough to moisten the dust on the roads. The moisture on this mesa land—by which is meant all the land between the hills, which are too steep to be plowed, and the actual river bottom lands—is near the surface. In the El Cajon and Sweetwater valleys, the water is found on this mesa at from eight to twenty feet, or at an average of from twelve to fifteen feet. On little hills or knobs in the valley the water is found at about the same depth. It is strange that with the water so near the surface no perennial vegetation of either shrubbery or trees should be found on this land. The grapevines will grow on it without irrigation; in fact none is used anywhere now, but no doubt it would prove profitable to irrigate somewhat, so as to increase the crops of grapes. Water can be had through the Cuyamaca flume, but has so far not been used. The vines do not grow after August 1st, and may stop growing sooner.
—The soils of the district are of four kinds: First, reddish clay mixed with gravel, the color changing between light chocolate and deep reddish. This soil is considered by many the most desirable. Second, a steel or slate gray adobe with much gravel of a coarse nature. Third, black adobe with little gravel. Fourth, alluvial sandy soil, apparently consisting of decomposed granite mixed with much vegetable matter. This soil is coarse, of a dark steel-gray color, very easily worked; it is considered the best for raisins, but it contains streaks where they will not grow and prove profitable. The last-named soil goes gradually over into common alluvial soil of a sandy nature. The two last-named soils are found principally in the Sweetwater valley.
—In planting, cuttings are generally used, not because they are most preferred, but because good rooted vines cannot be obtained. The distance to, and the difficulty of reaching, this district was formerly such that roots would suffer in transit and would rapidly dry, while cuttings could be had handy and fresh. The vines, originally planted eight by eight feet, have been given more distance of late, some vineyardists planting them eight by twelve feet, while others prefer twelve by twelve or ten by twelve feet. The varieties used are the Muscat of Alexandria only. This variety happened to be the one that was imported first from Riverside, I believe, and it was afterwards propagated by every one. The variety as grown in El Cajon is the type of Muscat of Alexandria with oblong berries, large clusters with loosely hanging berries and large strong stems. The shape of the vines is erect, with a few center shoots, strong and upright. The vines commence bearing the second year, and are said to pay expenses of caring for in the third year, but I think it would be safer to say in the fourth year.
As regards cultivation and plowing, many plow both ways and harrow and cultivate crosswise several times until the 1st of June, when, on account of the dryness of the soil, no more weeds start and no cultivation of any kind is needed. The large majority of the vineyards are splendidly kept, not a weed being seen anywhere for miles around. Winter pruning commences as soon as the leaves fall. In former years from five to nine spurs were left in pruning and two or three eyes on each spur, but it has been found profitable and judicious to leave more spurs, so as to take the sap in the spring, and now from twelve to fifteen spurs with two or three eyes each are left every winter. Spring or summer pruning has only been practiced the last two seasons, and being found very profitable is now adopted by everybody. The vines are not pinched, but headed well back as soon as the grapes are well set. This method has in this district the following advantages: It gives better shade to the bunches on account of the production of a strong second growth; it causes the bunches to fill better, and, finally, it leaves more room between the rows of the vines. I was told that any of these three advantages would warrant the system of summer pruning to be generally adopted. The valley has been unusually free from any insect pest, such as leaf-hoppers (Erythroneura comes) caterpillars, grasshoppers, etc., but suffers from mildew, not, however, to the extent that the presence of almost daily fogs would lead us to suppose. Sulphuring is now practiced to some extent, but not as much as it should be. The sulphur is applied with bellows as soon as the berries are the size of shot, but not before. Sulphuring for colure, or the dropping of the grapes when very small, is not practiced, nor was it ever suspected that it would help. Colure is quite common, much more so on sandy soil. Sunscald is frequent but not bad. I saw quite a number of grapes scalded on every vine, but not enough to warrant any special measures to be taken as a protection. The grapes have during this and last year ripened by the first days of September, but it is generally much later, or at about the 10th of September, when the vintage usually commences. The picking was, until last year, done by white labor, but the same was so very difficult to obtain that Chinese were then employed. They gave satisfaction to some, while to others not. Some of the principal growers are this year (1889) going to employ Chinese help at $1.25 per day, at which price they board themselves.
—The grapes are dried on redwood trays made of sawed redwood shingles, three-eighths of an inch thick. The trays are made two by three feet. The best growers are this year going to assort the grapes when putting them on the trays. This was never done before, but will be of great advantage. A tray will average eighteen pounds of fresh grapes, which will take about one month to dry,—never less than three weeks. There is but little second crop, generally none that can be saved. September is the warmest month, or else the grapes could not be dried. At a temperature of 103 degrees Fahrenheit, it was found that grapes scalded or cooked while on the trays. This is, however, very rarely the case. From ninety-five to one hundred degrees is considered the best temperature at which the best raisins are made. The sweatboxes used formerly were two by three feet and ten inches deep; but of late eight inches and six inches in depth is considered the best, on account of the facility with which they can be handled. As to packing, many advocate twenty-pound boxes, that are only four and one-half inches deep, contending that they will hold twenty pounds of loose raisins. Few Dehesas are put up, the general brands being three crown London layers, and three crown loose Muscats. Some are also put up in fancy paper boxes. This year the valley has two packing companies, who buy raisins in sweatboxes, and pay from four to five and a half cents per pound. The yield per acre is from two to three tons of green grapes, I should say this year nearer two than three tons. I saw, however, some that would average five tons per acre, but this land was favorably situated in a moister place than is generally found in Sweetwater valley, and the vines were yet growing on August 21st. I heard of much greater yields, so extraordinary indeed that they are not likely to return again. From five to seven tons to the acre is a really rare yield, even on the best land, where the water is within six or seven feet of the surface. This shows me conclusively that judicious irrigation would materially increase the crop, and greatly improve the uniform size of the berries. The profit on an acre of bearing Muscat vines is from fifty to one hundred and twenty-five dollars per acre. The latter is the most any one realized, and thirty-five dollars is considered a good profit. The expense of running a vineyard is hard to ascertain, but those best informed told me that forty dollars per acre would be an average; this of course includes everything. The small amount of weeds and the absence of irrigation materially lessens the expenses of the El Cajon vineyards.
Good vineyard or raisin land can be had for seventy-five dollars per acre. No vineyards in bearing have changed hands. Last year’s (1888) pack of the whole of San Diego county was variously estimated at from twenty to thirty thousand boxes, and this year at sixty thousand boxes of twenty pounds each.
The unanimous verdict of the best growers in El Cajon is that want of moisture is the greatest drawback to raisin culture there. And I agree with them in this, but also think it might to some extent be remedied, as water for irrigation is close at hand. At last I must say a few words as to the quality of the El Cajon and Sweetwater valley raisins. They are very sweet, highly flavored, the skin is thin, and the seeds are small and few. But while some of the berries are of very large size, there are comparatively few which would be considered large, and even the best bunches have too many small berries. The grapes that had plenty of water were simply magnificent, and a general irrigation system would greatly improve the size of the grapes, as well as the quality of the crop. The best selected raisins from this valley must be counted as among the very best. The constant fog injures the bloom on the raisins to some extent, and most raisins that I saw were in this respect deficient; but their color generally was very good. The Sweetwater valley raisins are in this respect finer than those of El Cajon; they are also farther inland, and have less fog. The Escondido raisins are said to be superior, but I saw none of them. While many vines have been planted in this locality of late, only one or two small vineyards are in bearing.
Of late raisin grapes have been planted in considerable quantities in Salt river valley and in Gila river valley in Arizona, but the outcome of the venture is yet unknown, at least to us. The growers of Arizona claim for their localities the advantage of great earliness, as the grapes ripen there in July, or a month earlier than in California.
In the Argentine Republic in South America it is said that the Spanish immigrants have planted many raisin grapes during the last few years. In Australia we are also informed that dipped raisins, and perhaps even sun-dried ones, have been produced, but even there the result is unknown to us. So far these raisins have cut no figure in the general market, but it is not improbable that many localities in those vast countries will be found where Muscat grapes can be profitably grown and cured.
—It is an interesting fact, and by no means a coincidence, that the raisin districts of the world are found on or between the same latitudes. Thus we find the California districts between latitudes 32°, 75´ and 38°, 75´. The latitude of Smyrna is 38°, 28´, 7´´, that of Malaga in Spain 36°, 75´, Valencia 39°, 25´, Denia 38°, 50´, the Grecian Islands and Morea 37° and 38°, and finally Huasco in Chile 28° south latitude. That the latter place is situated so much farther south or so much nearer the equator cannot exactly be considered exceptional, as it conforms with the general characteristics of the Southern hemispheres as compared with those on the northern half of the globe. In Europe the Muscat grape for raisin purposes is not a success north of the fortieth degree of latitude. While the limits in California and Chile are not yet fully ascertained, it may be presumed that, as far as regards this country, these limits will not differ very much from those of Spain and Asia Minor. Only years if not centuries of experience will finally decide where and where not raisin grapes can be grown and cured to perfection. While the vines and the grapes can be grown in many places, the proper curing of the raisins is attended with more or less difficulty in the various districts. With proper modes of curing the grapes, and by protecting them from the inclemencies of the weather, the limits of the successful raisin districts may be extended considerably both north and south.
—The climate of the Mediterranean basin, as well as of the raisin districts of the New World, present the peculiarity of having only two distinct seasons, one dry and warm, and one cold and wet. There are other parts of the world also characterized by a dry and a wet season, for instance Mexico and Central America, etc., but they differ in the important point, that whereas the climate of the raisin districts is dry during the growing or summer season, Mexico has then its greatest rainfall. While grape-growing may not be impossible under such circumstances, the curing and drying of raisins is impossible, except with the aid of costly and burdensome appliances, the expense of which will very much increase the cost of producing the raisins. The climate of the raisin centers is by no means uniform. As a rule, the farther north we go the less is the distinction between the dry and the wet season, the shorter is the former and the longer the season of rain. Experience shows that the less this distinction between the seasons is marked, and the shorter the rainless season, the less favorable is the climate for the raisin industry. The longer the dry season, and the less rain during the same, the more favorable is the locality for raisin drying and curing, supposing, of course, other necessary conditions are not absent. This absence of summer rains and cold fog is the most important climatic condition, and the one that more than any other decides upon the advantages of any certain locality for the industry under our consideration. A perusal of the reports from the different raisin districts will convince us of this. For California we need not refer to any special reports, as the newspapers are full of them every year from May to November, and it will suffice to state that any large amount of rain after the beginning of June, and especially in September, October and November, when the raisins are curing, is considered very detrimental, and sure to cause much loss. Heavy and continued rainfall during the drying season would not only injure the raisins, but might even totally ruin the crop. Any district where year after year such showers occur, would not be considered favorable for the raisin industry, and would no doubt be given up to something else. To show that these same conditions also exist in the Mediterranean raisin districts, we will here quote a few extracts from the United States consular reports from there. Consul W. E. Stevens, United States consul at Smyrna, writes:[5] “It happens occasionally that rain falls during the vintage time, causing heavy loss to growers through the inevitable deterioration in quality. This was the case last season (1883), and large quantities of raisins were in consequence shipped to France to be made into spirits.” From Valencia another consul writes: “In the event of wet and damp weather, the hurdles (or grape mats) are piled up in sheds covered with mats or painted canvas. Of course in this case the drying is retarded, the quality of the fruit deteriorates, and the expense and labor of curing are considerably increased.” Two years ago ten thousand tons were thus damaged in the Denia district. While the Mediterranean districts are comparatively rainless during the summer time, still they are far less so than California. The rainy and dry seasons there are less distinct than with us.
[5] Consular Reports, No. 411⁄2, June, 1884, page 745.
Among the Grecian Islands, the production of currants is confined to only a few localities, principally on account of the untimely rainfall on the other islands. Dr. Davy (Ionian Islands, page 320) tells us: “The attempts to extend the culture of the currant to some other islands have been only partial, and attended with doubtful success. This, it is to be understood, is not owing, as has been asserted, to any unfitness of the soil on other islands, as it is analogous on them all, but rather to some difference of climate, especially about the times of ripening, gathering and drying of the fruit, consisting in greater liability to rain, a heavy fall of which is ruinous to the crop, and which, during the period of gathering in the currant islands, is considered a great calamity.” But even in Zante and Cephalonia in Greece, the crop is sometimes greatly injured on account of rain. Thus in 1857 a crop of fifty thousand tons was expected, but disastrous rains in August injured the raisin grapes to such an extent that seventeen thousand tons were totally destroyed, and twelve thousand tons became unfit for anything else than distilling. Malaga in Spain, which of all the districts most resembles California, has undergone similar experiences, both damaging and ruinous.
It is thus that the fall rains are everywhere feared the most, the more so where they may be expected with regularity, and where the district is so situated that the heat of the sun is not powerful enough to rapidly dry the injured crop. Thus in Valencia the rains are feared more than at Malaga. In the latter place the sun is powerful enough to dry the raisins, and only repeated showers would injure the crop. Our experience is very much the same, and the early fall rains in the northern part of the State are to be feared much more than rains at the same time farther south, where a few showers would soon be succeeded by warm weather, and a hot sun powerful enough to dry the partially cured grapes. On account of local conditions, certain parts of Central California are freer from these fall rains than the more southern districts, but this disadvantage is counteracted by the greater amount of warm weather and drying winds just at a time when they are most needed. But while the southern part of the State is in this respect not as favorably situated as some other parts, the disadvantage is greatly counteracted by the warmer and drier fall weather in October and November, and by drying winds which are often able to desiccate the moistened raisins in a very few days.
Spring rains in May or even in the early part of June cannot be considered greatly detrimental to the vines. On the contrary, if only occurring at long intervals, one or two showers say during the season, they are rather beneficial than otherwise. In California I have never known them to injure the crop, except if accompanied by heavy hail. Much alarm is regularly felt every time such a shower happens to come, but after it is well over it will generally be found that the vines look fresher and better, the ozone and ammonia which was brought down by the rain having acted as powerful fertilizers for the grape-leaves, and increased their vigor and growth. The only thing that might prove injurious at this or any other time of the growing season would be continued cloudy weather before or after such showers, which would cause mildew. Such weather has to my knowledge never been experienced. Occasionally spring rains also bring frost, and this of course is one of the greatest enemies of the raisin-vines.
—In order that the raisin grapes may develop and mature without the aid of irrigation, the winter rains should be sufficient to keep the soil moist during the dry months. The absolute quantity of rain thus necessary varies in different localities. In California, generally, we would say that from twenty to twenty-four inches of rain would be required every year to keep the soil sufficiently moist to grow Muscatel grapes without irrigation. The nearer we go to the coast the less rainfall is required to supply this moisture, and the farther we go inland, the more elevated the land, the less rain is needed. Thus a regular rainfall of twenty-four inches would possibly not suffice on the low plains of the San Joaquin valley, while in El Cajon in San Diego county one-half of this rainfall is enough to grow the vines and mature small crops of very good and superior grapes.
It matters not from where the moisture comes,—from rain, seepage, moist air or irrigation,—as long as it is not present in excess nor too scant. In El Cajon valley the moisture appears to be held in suspense in impervious strata, or perhaps in strata which contain and preserve the moisture as does a sponge. In parts of Chile, as well as in Malaga and Smyrna, the winter rainfall is sufficient to grow crops of fair size and good quality, but it is almost certain that judicious irrigation in any of these places proves beneficial and remunerative. Of all the present raisin districts, Smyrna enjoys the greatest rainfall, often as much as thirty odd inches of rain. Of localities which grow raisins profitably with the least possible amount of rain, and without irrigation, Huasco and El Cajon take the lead. In Central California, as well as in San Bernardino county, no raisin culture would be possible with the natural rainfall. In foreign countries, Valencia and the Grecian Islands, as well as Morea, are similarly situated in not having sufficient rainfall to produce paying crops.
As a rule it may be said that, where the rainfall is sufficient to grow the Muscats without irrigation and cause them to bear good crops, the fall rains are also too frequent and too injurious to the drying grapes to allow a profitable raisin cult. The proper amount of moisture necessary to perfect the grapes cannot be ascertained by the aid of the rain gauge. While, as we have said, from twenty to thirty inches may be enough in Smyrna, from seven to ten inches suffice in El Cajon, and in Chile even less is required. The proper amount of moisture can best be told by the state of growth of the vines. The vines must have moisture enough to be kept growing up to the very time of the maturity of the grapes. The proper sign of this is the green and fresh color of the young shoots or the tips, combined with a certain vigor of the tendrils. When the tips cease to grow, and the tendrils begin to dry up, then the moisture has begun to give out, and irrigation should have been resorted to; the winter rains were not sufficient.
—One of the frequent effects of spring showers is spring frosts. They are always injurious to the tender Muscat vine, and if occurring more than once during the same spring may entirely ruin the crop. In California such frosts occur sometimes in April, and observations inform us that they are most to be feared between the tenth and fifteenth of that month, while sometimes they come even later. The young buds are then either opening or fully developed into shoots, which the lightest frost will blacken and cause to dry up. Where the vines are irrigated and strong, one such frost may not ruin the crop, as new buds will start out in place of the old ones destroyed, and new shoots and new blossoms will come out. I have seen as many as three such crops of shoots develop from the winter buds, but each succeeding crop of such shoots is weaker than the preceding one, and bears less and later grapes. Happily, these frosts occur but very seldom in the Central and Southern California raisin districts, and during fifteen years of observation I have seen only three such frost years in which the branches were partially injured. In neither of these seasons was the crop materially injured as to quantity, the principal effect of the frost being a retarding of the crop for a week or more. Smoking of vineyards can only be successfully carried out in small valleys sheltered from heavy winds, but on the open plains such smoking is accompanied with difficulties, and its effect is uncertain. The growing of a limited number of windbreaks has in the Fresno district no doubt modified the climate, and made spring frosts rarer and less to be feared.
While the spring frosts are injurious to the grapes, winter frosts are on the other hand most beneficial, if not necessary to a continued raisin cult. The raisin grape must have a season of recuperation, and winter frost is the only climatic phenomenon which, without injury to the vine, can procure it that rest which is so necessary for all deciduous trees, by nature destined to enjoy alternate periods of growth and sleep. The absence of frost causes the sap of the vine to circulate more or less in the wood, and the vine never ceases to grow. This is one of the reasons why our deciduous vines do not succeed well in the tropics, where there are no cold seasons to cause the leaves to fall and the sap to become dormant. In the tropics, therefore, our deciduous vines keep on growing, set little or no fruit, and prove unprofitable. This phenomenon is shared there with other trees, and peaches, pears and apples act in the same manner. They all appear to need the rest afforded them by the winter frosts. It is also a question of very great importance, whether the continued and unnatural activity of the vine, at a time when it should be dormant, does not invite diseases of various kinds, which find the exhausted vines unfit to withstand their ravages. It may be possible that mal nero, the vine plague and other similar and as yet insufficiently understood diseases, are especially destructive to vines growing in frost-free climates, while in colder climates they make but little headway, the vines as it were being protected by the heavy frosts, which either kill the enemies of the vine or enable the latter to gather the necessary strength to battle with them through the growing season. There can be little doubt that at present the healthiest vineyards are those growing in countries where winter frosts are severe, but on the other hand we know that grapevines have been growing for ages in temperate climates, where the frosts, even if not entirely unknown, are still of very rare occurrence.
—The temperature in summer time must be sufficient to properly ripen the grapes, but must not be so great as to injure them either while they hang on the vines, or while they are exposed to dry on the trays. The average heat required to do the work of maturing is not exactly known, but it is certain that a very high degree is not absolutely needed to produce sweet grapes. As far as our experience goes, it seems that cool weather, with the average temperature of ninety degrees Fahrenheit, would be most beneficial in the fore part of the season, while when the grapes begin to ripen a greater heat is desirable. It is not the warmest countries nor the warmest seasons which produce the earliest grapes. Thus while the season of 1888 was in California unusually cool, with the thermometer seldom reaching one hundred degrees in June and July, the raisin season was nevertheless a very early one, and much earlier than seasons remarkable for their early high temperature. In Malaga and Smyrna, the heat seldom reaches one hundred degrees, and the grapes ripen several weeks earlier than in Fresno, where the summer temperature averages ten degrees higher. In Fresno, on the contrary, the season is earlier than in Southern California, where probably the seabreezes retard the ripening of the grapes. A temperature of over one hundred and five degrees proves injurious to unprotected or exposed grapes in the central region of California, but in San Diego county several degrees less is sufficient to scald the grapes or give them a cooked flavor if they are already exposed on the trays to dry. It is certain that with an average highest temperature of ninety degrees, the grapes develop better and become larger and sweeter than where the heat is excessive and reaches one hundred and ten degrees or more.[6]
[6] Whenever the temperature is referred to it means the degree of heat (Fahrenheit) in the shade, and not in the sun except when so expressly stated.
The time when the greatest temperature occurs is of practical importance. Excessive heat can be tolerated by grapes protected by leaves and branches or otherwise sheltered, but if it happens at a time when the bunches are exposed to dry on the trays, the injury to the berries will be great or even ruinous. Early localities are especially apt to suffer in this way, and it is well to experiment before too much confidence is placed in very early regions. To such places, however, there remains the possibility of curing the raisins in partial shade, as is done in Chile, thus producing raisins of an entirely different type from the Malaga or California product.
—In the California raisin districts hot, electrical winds are much feared in the months of June and July, or before the grapes have begun to ripen. In the San Joaquin valley these winds come from the northwest and sweep down over the vines, often scorching the leaves and frequently drying the berries on the exposed side. In the course of a few days the berries dry up entirely, and the whole bunch is lost. These drying winds are not peculiar to any certain part of California, but occur from time to time in every raisin district on the coast, in the south as well as in the center, on the coast as well as inland. The remedy is to grow the vines low and to keep the berries well covered. The planting of windbreaks will also modify these winds, and in places where they formerly were common they have now entirely ceased or become so modified that they cause no injury to the grapes, but prove even beneficial on account of the quicker and better maturing of the fruit. In certain districts, especially in San Bernardino and in Orange, some very drying winds are experienced late in the season,—in September and October. For the raisin-growers these winds are a blessing. They quickly dry the exposed grapes, which have been retarded in drying, or perhaps even injured by a previous shower of rain or by continued heavy dews. These winds are undoubtedly desert winds, and similar to the Terral of Malaga, which, sweeping over the inland plains of La Mancha, reach the coast vineyards and quickly mature the grapes. In Malaga there is also a moist southern wind, the Levante, which retards the ripening and the curing of the grapes, and which must be considered as our southwesterly fall winds, which, saturated with moisture, swell the overdried raisins as well as prevent the yet green grapes from drying. They are precursors of the rainy season, and warn the grower to prepare his dryer if he possess one. In Greece and Smyrna such hot or moist winds are also known and feared, and cause at times much damage in one way or another. We might here also mention the cold “northers” which are common in the California raisin districts in springtime, and which sometimes both cause the young shoots to break off from the old wood and make it easy for the mildew to attack the flowers or the young berries of the vines. Against these northwest winds we have two remedies, summer pruning and sulphuring, which, if applied in time, are both quite effective.
—It is certain that the air in the California raisin districts is much drier than that of the Spanish or Mediterranean districts generally. The night air is, in these districts, loaded with moisture, and dew is heavy and frequent, even in the middle of the summer. The air in Malaga and Smyrna feels quite moist, and without this moisture in the air the vines would grow less and require irrigation. In these places the raisin grapes grow on the steep hillsides without irrigation, but in California this could not be done anywhere except in El Cajon or in other parts of the San Diego district, where the air is considerably moister than elsewhere. This increased moisture is partly caused by the increased rainfall in these districts, and partly by their nearness to the sea and fogs. This moisture in the air will, when other conditions are equal, greatly benefit the grapes, causing them to grow larger, and the thickness of the skin is materially diminished. Combined with this moisture in the air, fogs are injurious or indifferent. There is always a great difference between warm fogs and cold fogs, and now I speak principally of fogs from the ocean. Warm fogs are not particularly injurious to the grapes, generally indifferent and sometimes even considerable of a benefit to the proper development of the grapes. In Malaga, San Diego and in Chile the Muscat grapes grow and thrive actually within the reach of the spray of the waves, and fogs are there not uncommon, but they are warm. It would seem that such a climate would cause mildew or oidium, but I cannot find that these fungi are particularly frequent in San Diego county, while in Malaga they are but little more common than in the inland districts of our State. But as we go north the cold fogs become more common, and the vines thrive less under their influence. North of Los Angeles county the Muscat vines do not enjoy the coast air, while even in Orange county the interior vineyards are preferred to those closer to the coast. But anywhere, even in the best situated districts, protection from the direct influence of the sea fogs is appreciated, and the best localities are those in which low hills afford this protection by modifying and increasing the temperature of the fog or sea air.
In Central, and in the larger part of Southern, California, the inland valleys are the most successful raisin-producing districts, while even in San Diego county, where the Muscats seem to thrive at the very seashore, the interior valleys alone afford the necessary heat and dry air for curing the grapes and transforming them into raisins. According to Consul G. H. Heap of Constantinople, the positions preferred for vineyards in Turkey are the slopes of elevated and sheltered undulating lands, or on the sunny hills that do not lie too near the coast, or are naturally protected from the cold winds and fogs of the sea. The Island of Cos or Zea is called the paradise of the Sultana grape, because Nature has given the cultivable land there the best possible protection from the direct influence of the fogs. In Malaga, according to Consul Marston, eighty per cent of the vineyards are situated on the hills and inland, ten per cent on the valley lands or plains, and ten per cent on the coast. With the exception of some of the San Diego vineyards, California cannot show any raisin vineyards as close to the coast as those found in Malaga. The main El Cajon vineyards are from ten to fifteen miles inland, while the former Santa Ana vineyards were situated from eight to twelve miles from the coast. The San Bernardino raisin vineyards are from twenty to thirty miles inland, while in the San Joaquin valley the raisin districts are more than a hundred miles from the coast, while the sea wind, before it reaches any of the vines, has been modified by passing over from two to three hundred miles of dry country.
—There remains only to draw some conclusions from the above facts. We are often asked what are the ideal conditions, as far as climate is concerned, for the proper development of the raisin grape, and for the proper curing of the raisins. Could we select such an ideal spot, where all the requirements for the raisin industry could be found in their highest perfection, with as few of the drawbacks as possible, our choice would be as follows: A moderately dry air, a frostless spring, a rainy winter and a rainless autumn. The temperature in the summer should vary between ninety and one hundred degrees, the fall months should now and then be visited by drying winds, while the winter frosts should be heavy and regular, but not below twelve degrees. Some have suggested that absolute freedom from any rain would be very desirable, as then no interference would be experienced with the cultivation of the grapes, but I doubt if the soil in such districts would not be rapidly exhausted through the want of weeds, the plowing under of which enriches the ground and enables it better to preserve the moisture provided for it by irrigation.
—No one certain variety of soil can be said to be the best for raisin purposes, and both in different countries, as well as in the same district, various varieties of soils are valued equally. Every raisin district has, however, its favorite soil, which is supposed to have some peculiar advantages for the raisin grapes, but upon closer investigation we generally find other varieties of soils which are not inferior. Growers who have succeeded with raisin grapes on one variety of soil are only too apt to consider this kind preferable to any other. This is especially the case in California, where soils vary so much and where in some districts it is difficult to find forty acres with a uniform soil. Whether the soil is black, red or gray, it makes but very little difference, as long as it is rich and susceptible of the highest state of cultivation and has the faculty of retaining moisture. The deeper and richer the soil the better the Muscatel grape will thrive and produce, and as such soils are most generally found along the banks of creeks and rivers, or in their bottoms and sinks, we might conclude that in such localities the best soils for the Muscat grape may be found. Other varieties of raisin grapes, such as the Malaga (California) and the Sultana, do well in less rich soil; indeed, they bear profitably in places where the Muscat would be a failure. It is therefore important for every vineyardist to carefully select his soil and then plant on it the proper variety of vine.
—The soils of Malaga are of various kinds. The best is a reddish loam containing much gravel, both coarse and fine. This soil is very stiff and hard, and when dry is as solid as a brick. The red color is derived from oxide of iron or other iron compounds, which many of the best vineyardists consider a most desirable element in any raisin soil. The upland vineyards, or those on the slope of the hills, contain soils of decomposed clay and slate mixed with more or less gravel and sand. The Dehesa lands contain alluvial deposits of a black or gray color.
—In this district we find soils of many different grades and colors. The sandy and gravelly soils are considered as producing the finest flavored raisins, and those having the best keeping qualities, while the rich, loamy soils of the valleys produce raisins of inferior flavor and keeping qualities, but of larger size and more per acre. For economical reasons, the latter soils are preferred, as they alone can be irrigated and made to produce large crops. Some of the best vineyards in this district contain a gray, ashy soil, quite similar to the white ash of the Kings river lands, while others are growing on a red clayey loam similar to the California red soil.
—The raisin-grapes of Smyrna in Asia Minor are almost exclusively grown on a white limestone soil, which consists of decomposed white rocks mixed with a stiff ocher-colored loam. This soil is so rocky that it must first be cleared, and the large rocks are carried away and used for boundary walls. This is the soil in the coast districts. In the interior the Sultana vines, as well as the Muscats, are replaced by fig orchards and other trees which delight in sandy soil,—too sandy to produce profitable raisin crops.
—The soils of Zante, the home of the Currant grape, are of various kinds. The heavy marl of the plains, which contains a large percentage of gypsum or sulphate of lime, is considered the best; indeed the gypsum is by many considered indispensable, or at least highly beneficial, to the above variety of grape. Other soils are red clay, gray marl and gravelly loam, all containing an abundance of lime. The Currant grape grows well and produces well on all these different soils, but does the best on the gypsum soil, which is therefore the most valued. On other soils the bunches are less solid, and the quantity of grapes produced is somewhat less, while their quality is inferior.