There is a kund in Baladāna near Wadhwan, dedicated to Hol, the favourite mātā of the Chārans. In this kund, black or red gagar bedinus—pieces of cotton thread—are sometimes seen floating in the water. They appear only for a moment, and sink if any one endeavours to seize them. The appearance of black pieces forebodes famine: but the red ones foretell prosperity.458

In Bhadakon near Chudā there is a kund called Garigavo. The place is celebrated as the spot of the hermitage of the sage Bhrigu and a fair is held there annually on the last day of Bhādrapad.458

Persons anxious to attain heaven, bathe in the Mrigi kund on Mount Girnār; and a bath in the Revati kund, which is in the same place, confers male issue on the bather.459 There is also a kund of the shape of an elephant’s footprint Pagahein on Mount Girnār. It never empties and is held most sacred by pilgrims.460 People bathe in the Gomati kund near Dwārkā and take a little of the earth from its bed, for the purification of their souls.461 In the village of Bābarā, Babhruvāhan, the son of Arjun, is said to have constructed several kunds, all of which are believed to be holy.460

The Lasundra kund near Lasundra in the Kaira District462 and the Tulsi-shyāma kund on Mount Girnār463 contain hot waters. There is also a hot kund called Devki-unai, about thirty miles to the south of Surat.462 There the waters remain hot throughout the whole of the year, except on the fifteenth day of the bright half of Chaitra. On this day, the waters cool, and people can bathe in the kund. Many pilgrims visit the place on this occasion, to offer money, cocoanuts, and red lac to the unai mātā, whose temple stands near the kund. It is said that King Rāma built this kund while performing a local sacrifice, and brought water up from the pātāl (nether regions) by shooting an arrow into the earth.464

Other holy kunds are: the Bhīm kund, the Gomukhi-gangā, and the Kamandalu kund on Mount Girnār near the temple of Bhimnāth Mahādeo; the Rādhā kund, the Lalita kund, and the Krishna-sarovar in Dwārkā; the Rāma-sarovar, the Sītā kund and the Devki-unai kund in Ayodhya (Oudh);465 and the Suraj kund466 and the Hanumāndhāra467 kund on Mount Girnār.

Waterfalls are not very familiar to the people of Gujarāt. There is a belief, however, that barren couples obtain issue if they bathe in a waterfall, and offer a cocoanut.468

If a river source issues from an opening, in the shape of a go-mukh (cow’s-mouth), the stream is called dhodh, and is considered as sacred as the holy Ganges. A bath in such a dhodh has the same efficacy for absolving persons from their sins.469

When a person dies an accidental death and before the fulfilment of his worldly desires, his soul receives avagati (i.e., passes into a degraded or fallen condition), and it is not released from this state till Shrāddhas have been duly performed in its name, and the objects of its desire dedicated to it with proper ritual. The same fate befalls those souls which do not receive the funeral pindas with the proper obsequies. Such fallen souls become ghosts and goblins,470 and are to be found where water is, i.e., near a well, a tank, or a river.471

Those who meet death by drowning become goblins, residing near the scene of their death, and are a source of danger to all who approach the water; for instance, in Monāpuri and Sāsai, there are two ghunas (mysterious watery pits) haunted by bhuts (ghosts) which take the lives of one or two buffaloes every year.472 Mātās473 and Shankhinis also haunt wells, springs, and tanks and either drown, or enter the persons of those who go near their resorts.

Persons who are possessed in this manner, can be freed by bhuvas,473 who give them a magic thread to wear.474

There is a vāv called Nīlkanth vāv near Movaiya, in which a Pinjari (a female cotton-carder) is said to have been drowned, and to have been turned into a ghost, in which form she occasionally presents herself to the people.475

Another ghost haunts an old vāv, called Madhā, in Vadhwān and drowns one human being every third year as a victim. But a male spirit named Kshetrapāl resides in the kotha (or entrance) of the vāv, and saves those who fall near the entrance. A person is, however, sure to be drowned if he falls in any other part of the vāv.476 A ghost also resides in the vāv at Hampar near Dhrāngadhrā and terrifies the people at times.476

The goddess Rainadevi resides in water, and is worshipped by virgins on the fifteenth day of the bright half of Āshādh, when they grow javārās (tender wheat-plants) in an earthen vessel and present them to her, remaining awake for the whole of the night to sing songs in her honour.469

Daryā-Pir, the patron of Luvānās (merchants) and Khārvās (sailors), resides in the sea; and vows are observed in his honour by these people on the second day of the bright half of every month, when they pass a little water through his sieve.477

It is well known that a drowning person clings fast to anyone who tries to save him, and endangers the lives of both himself and his saviour.478 It is also believed by some people that the messengers of Varuna (the lord of all waters) seize those persons who bathe in a river earlier than the usual hour in the morning; and the act of saving a drowning person thus deprives Varuna of his victim, and brings down the wrath of that deity.479

Sometimes, for the sake of moksha, a person takes samādhi (i.e., drowns himself with a religious motive) in a holy river, such as the Ganges or the Jumnā. In such a case the relatives and other persons refrain from interference, and do not try to rescue the person.478

When a well is to be dug, an expert is first called to select a likely spot on which to dig. A Brahman is then consulted as to the auspicious hour on which the work of digging should be commenced.480 For this purpose, Tuesdays and those days on which the earth sleeps are to be avoided. The earth is supposed to be asleep on the following six days in every month, namely: the 1st, the 7th, the 9th, the 10th, the 14th and the 24th days following a sankrānti (i.e., the day on which the sun crosses from one constellation to another). Excluding these days, a date is generally fixed on which the Chandra-graha (or the planet moon) is favourable to the constructor of the well.481

On the appointed day, the expert, the constructor of the well, the Brahman priest, and the labourers go to the place where the well is to be dug, and an image of the god Ganpati—the protector of all auspicious ceremonies—is first installed on the spot and worshipped with panchāmrit.482483 A green coloured piece of atlas (silk cloth), about two feet long, is then spread on the spot, and a pound and a quarter of wheat, a cocoanut, betels, dates and copper coin are placed on it. A copper bowl containing some silver or gold coins and filled with water, is also placed there; the mouth of the bowl is covered with the leaves of the Ashoka tree (Jinesia Asoka) and a cocoanut is placed over the leaves. After this, the priest recites sacred hymns and asks his host to perform the khāt484 ceremonies.485 Among favourite offerings to Ganpati and the earth in the course of worship and in the performance of the khāt ceremonies are: curds, milk, honey, molasses, cocoanuts, dhanā (a kind of spices), leaves of nāgarvel (a kind of creeper) and red lac.480 The expert who is called to choose a proper site for the well offers frankincense and a cocoanut to the spot, and lights a lamp thereon. After the khāt486 ceremonies are over, the host distributes sugar or molasses among the bystanders, and offers a sum of money to the expert, who usually refuses it, asking the host to spend it in charity. Those who accept money give away a part of it in alms to the poor.480

Sometimes, to secure the unobstructed completion of the work, the god Ganpati and the goddess Jaladevi are installed and worshipped daily, till water appears in the well.481 Some people, however, install the goddess Jaladevi after the appearance of water, when a stone is taken out from the bottom of the well and is plastered with red-lead to represent the goddess and is ceremoniously worshipped. When the construction of the well is complete, vāstu, i.e., the ceremony in vogue after the completion of a new building, or jalotsava (the water-festival) is celebrated, Brahmans being entertained at a feast, with dakshinā given.487

The water of the Krukalas well in the island of Shankhodwār is believed to cure fever and diseases caused by morbid heat. A draught of the water of the Gomukhi-gangā near Girnār, makes one proof against an attack of cholera.488

The water of a gozarā well (i.e., a well which is polluted on account of a person bring drowned in it) cures children of bronchitis and cough.489490

There is a well near Ramdorana, of which the water is effective against cough,491 and the water of the Bhamaria well near Vasāwad possesses the same virtue.492

The water of the Mrigi kund near Junāgadh remedies leprosy.491

The Pipli well near Zālāwād and the Detroja-vāv near Kolki are well-known for the stimulative effect of their waters on the digestion.493

If a dark stone is found in the course of digging a well, the water of that well is believed to have medicinal properties.494

The birth of a child under the mul nakshatra endangers the life of its father: but the misfortune is averted if the child and its parents bathe in water drawn from one hundred and eight wells.488 Such water, if swallowed, is said to cure sanipāt or delirium.495

In the island of Shial there is a vāv called Thān-vāv, where mothers, who cannot suckle their children for want of milk, wash their bodices. When they afterwards wear these bodices, these are believed to be able to cause the due secretion of milk.496

The most famous of the sacred lakes are Pampa497, Bindu498, Pushkar and Sāmbhar near Ajmere, Mān-sarovar near Bahucharāji, Nārāyan-sarovar in Cutch, Rāvanrhad in the Himālayas, and Rāmarhad. The following popular myth is related about Mān-sarovar.

Two kings once agreed that the two children that should first be born to them should marry each other. But it happened that both the kings had daughters. One of them, however, concealed the fact, and gave out that the child born to him was a son. So that when the children attained a marriageable age, they were married to each other according to the agreement.

But the wife found out the secret when she went to stay with her supposed husband, and disclosed it to her parents, who invited the counterfeit son-in-law to their house with the object of ascertaining the truth. The alleged son, however, suspected the design and fled, with a mare and a bitch. On arriving near Mān-sarovar, the animals went into the lake in order to refresh themselves, when there was an immediate transformation; and the bitch and the mare came out a horse and a dog. On observing this miracle, their mistress followed their example and was also turned into a male. The story is still sung by girls in a garabi (song) during the Navarātra holidays.499

There is a belief that the ancient golden city of Dwārkā, the capital of god Krishna, still exists in the sea, although it is invisible to the eyes of mortals.494 A story is told of a man named Pipo Bhagat, who, once perceiving a golden bowl floating in the sea, plunged into the water and saw the golden palaces of Dwārkā and god Krishna resting therein. It is said that he returned with the tide and related his experience to several people.500

Similarly, the golden Lanka of Rāvan is still believed to exist under the sea, ruled over by Bibhishan, the brother of Rāvan, and visible only to the eyes of saints and holy persons.501 It is a common belief that the nether regions are inhabited by a species of semi-divine beings, half men and half serpents, called Nāgs, who possess magnificent palaces under the water.502 The story of Kāliya Nāg, who resided at the bottom of the Jumnā and was driven from that place by Krishna, is well known.503 There are a number of mythological traditions in the Purānas of kings and princes having visited these palaces in watery regions, and of their having brought back beautiful Nāgakanyās (daughters of Nāgs) therefrom.504 For instance, Arjuna married a Nāgakanyā named Ulupi when he was living in exile with his brothers. He also stayed for some time with the Nāgs.

Ghosts and demons sometimes inhabit palaces under the water. Deep waters, unfrequented by men, are the favourite resorts of such beings.505

The god Varuna resides in the waters, and is said to have once carried off Nand (the adoptive father of Krishna) to his watery abode, for having bathed in the Jumnā before dawn.503

Kālindi, the daughter of the king of the Kalingas, practised religious austerities in a palace under the waters of the Jumnā with the object of securing a suitable husband. Krishna, on being informed of this by Arjuna, went to the place and married her.506

There is a story in the Purānas that a king, named Nandrāj, used to bury his treasures in the sea with the assistance of a mani (jewel) which furnished a safe passage through the water. The mani was in the end burnt by the queen of Nandrāj and the treasure still lies hidden in the waters of the sea.507

It is narrated in the fourth chapter of Bhāgvat-purān that the ten thousand sons of Prachetas used to reside in palaces built under water.508

Mountains are held to be sacred in a variety of circumstances; thus, some are valued for possessing medicinal drugs: some are revered as the birthplaces of the gods, or as the residences of saints: some for possessing many tīrthas (holy spots): some because they were visited by Rāma or the Pāndavas: some serve as guardians of the four quarters: and some contain the sources of holy rivers.

Both the important ranges of the Presidency, the Sahyādri and the Sātpuda, are subjects of veneration in the popular mind. The Himālayas, the Vindhyā Mountains, and the Nilgiris command special respect. Other sacred mountains are Girnār and Shetrunja in Kāthiāwār, Mount Ābu, Pāvāgad near Baroda, Brahmagiri Ārāsur, Tryambak near Nasik, Koyalo, Govardhan near Mathurā, Revatāchal near Dwārkā, and Hinglaj in Sind.

It is said that in ancient times there were deep miry ditches where Girnār and Ābu stand at present. One day a cow belonging to the sage Vasishtha fell into one of them and was found by Kacha, the son of Brihaspati, after a long search. When the incident was brought to the notice of Vasishtha, he requested Meru (a mythical mountain) to send his two sons Girnār and Ābu to occupy and fill the ditches. Girnār required sixty-eight tīrthas to accompany him; and the boon was granted by the gods.509

Girnār is one of the seven great mountains which once possessed wings.510511 It is also known as the place where the sage Dattātraya performed religious austerities.512 The place is so holy that any person dying within a radius of twelve gaus513 from it is believed to attain moksha.514 A visit to the temples on Girnār absolves one from all sins; and taking a turn round Girnār and Shetrunja is said to bring good fortune.515 Bhagwān manifests himself to those who ascend the Bhairavajaya summit on Girnār. There is a rock on this mountain of which it is said that those who cast themselves from it directly attain heaven.516

Pāvāgad is known for the temple of Mahākāli Mātā. It is said that King Patai once propitiated her by austerities, and on being desired to demand a boon, asked the goddess to accompany him to his palace. The goddess was highly incensed at this request, and promptly destroyed him.516

Hanūmān, the monkey-god, once promised to take the Mountain Govardhan to meet Rāma. It is well known how the monkey allies of Rāma constructed a bridge of rocks across the sea to Laṅkā, and how Hanūmān supplied the requisite material by fetching huge mountains. Whilst engaged on this work, he was one day carrying the Govardhan mountain to the site of the bridge, when Rāma issued an order that all monkeys who were fetching mountains should deposit their burdens at the spot where they stood at the moment of the order. Hanūmān could not disobey the order of his lord, and he had accordingly to drop the Govardhan mountain near Mathurā. In order to fulfil Hanūmān’s promise, however, Vishnu held the mountain over his head for seven days, at the time of his Krishna incarnation.516

It is said that the inhabitants of the districts round Govardhan formerly revered and adored Indra. But Krishna condemned this custom, and introduced the worship of Govardhan. Indra was exasperated at this conduct, and poured tremendous rains on Gokal in order to drown Krishna and his followers. But Krishna held up the Govardhan mountain on his little finger and sheltered all his people under its cover. The mountain was supported in this manner for seven days, by the end of which the rains subsided and Indra confessed himself vanquished. Even now Vaishnavas form an image of Govardhan out of mud and worship it on the Janmāshtamī day (i.e., the eighth day of the dark half of Shrāvan).517

The Oshama Hill near Pātanvāv (in the jurisdiction of Gondal) is noted for the beautiful temples of Tapakeshwar Mahādev, and Mātari Mātā. It is said that Bhīma518 the second of the five Pāndavas, first met the giantess Hidimbā, on this hill.519 The charcoal-like stones which are dug out in numbers from this hill are believed by the people to have been blackened by the blood of the giant Hidimb, the brother of Hidimbā who was killed by Bhīma.520

Mount Shetrunja (or Shatruñjaya) possesses numerous Jain shrines and attracts thousands of pilgrims every year. The hearts of all pilgrims are believed to be purified from the moment they come within six miles of the mountain.521

Mount Ābu possesses the temple of Ambā Mātā where Krishna’s hair was clipped for the first time.522 Tryambak is known for the temple of Tryambakeshwar and the source of the holy Godāvari.523 About Revatāchal, it is said that the mountain was golden in ancient times.524 In the Vindhya Mountains is situated the famous temple of Omkār Mandhātā.525 The hermitage of Kākbhushundi in the Nilgiris was visited by Rāma when he listened to the religious stories read out by that sage. The sage Agatsya also is said to have resided in these mountains.526

The temple of Hinglaj stands on a hill, which is situated at a distance of eighteen days’ journey by road from Karachi. The Mātā is ministered to by a Musalman and the place is mostly visited by Atits, Bāvās, Khatris, Chhipās, Mochis, and other low-caste Hindus. On occasions the doors of the temple spontaneously open, and after the devotees have visited the Mātā, they again shut in the same mysterious manner.525

As the abode of Shiva and as containing the sources of the holiest of rivers, the Himālayas are the most sacred of all mountains, and possess many holy places of pilgrimage, such as Badrinārāyan, Kedārnāth, Hardwār, etc. Badrinārāyan is the favourite resort of those who have relinquished the world and who only wish to meditate on the Divine Being. The sages Nara and Nārāyan are said to have performed religious austerities in this place, and eighty-eight thousand rishis (sages) are believed to be similarly occupied there to-day. Owing to the excessive cold, the place is extremely difficult to reach. Pilgrims carry burning hearths with them to protect themselves against cold. Besides, it is necessary to cross the Pathar-nadi (or stony river), of which the water, if touched, turns one into stone. The method of crossing this river is to suspend sikāns or slings above its water and to swing from one sling to another.527

A hill called Swargārohan is believed to be twenty miles to the north of Badrikedārnāth and is said to lead to heaven. In ancient times the Pāndavas had repaired to this place in order to do penance for the sin of having killed their kinsmen in the Great War. But when they tried to ascend to heaven by the Swargārohan Hill, only Yudhishthir and his faithful dog were able to reach their goal: the rest were frozen in the snow.527

Mount Kailāsa, the abode of Shiva, is supposed to be situated in the northern part of the Himālayas. The mountain is described as always covered with verdure and full of beautiful gardens and of palaces made of jewels, with roads paved with golden dust and sphatika-mani (crystal stone).527 It is said that Rāvan, the king of Lankā, once uprooted this mountain and held it on the palm of his hand, in order to display his prowess. The demon Bhasmāsur, who was enamoured of the goddess Pārvati, is said to have performed the same feat in order to frighten Shiva.523

Another mythical mountain is Meru, which is supposed to occupy the centre of the earth.528 The sun, the moon, and all the planets revolve round this mountain, and it therefore plays an important part in the causation of day and night. For night falls on one side of the earth when the sun goes to the other side of Meru; and the day begins when the sun emerges from that side of the mountain. Meru is sixty-eight thousand yojans529 in height, and penetrates the earth to the depth of sixteen thousand yojans. Its eastern side appears white, the southern is yellow, the western is black, and the northern red. The mountain is also believed to consist of gold and gems. The Ganges, in her fall from the heavens, is said to have descended first on the top of this mountain and then to have flowed in four streams in four directions. The southern stream is known as the Ganges; the northern, in Tartary, is called Bhadrasoma; the eastern is the same as the Sitā; and the western is named Chax or the Oxus. The top of this mountain is believed to be inhabited by gods, gandharvas (celestial musicians) and rishis (sages).530 According to the Yoga-vāsishtha, there is a kalpa-vriksha531 on the Lalmani summit of Meru, where a rishi named Bhushundkāk is engaged in devotional prayers since time immemorial.532 The Purānas declare that Vaivaswat Manu, the first man, resided near Meru, and that his descendants migrated to Ayodhyā to found there a kingdom which was afterwards ruled over by Rāma.530

It is believed by some people that mountain-tops are inhabited by a class of recluses, called Aghori-bāvās, who devour human beings.533 The Kālikā hill near Girnār is believed to be frequented by Joganis (female harpies) who take the lives of visitors to the hill, and it is said that none who visits the place is ever known to return.534 Persons who visit the temple of Kālikāmātā on Mount Girnār always lose one of their party, who falls a victim to the goddess.535

The changes in the seasons are attributed by some to Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesha (Shiva), the gods of the Hindu Trinity. Brahma sends down the rains and produces corn, grass, etc., Vishnu protects and nourishes the harvests in winter, and Shiva causes the heat of the summer.536 There is also a belief that these three gods go down in turns to the pātāl (nether regions) and stay there for four months. Vishnu descends on the eleventh day of the bright half of Āshādh, and on that day the rainy season begins. When Vishnu comes up and Shiva takes his place, people experience the cold of winter: but as this god always keeps a dhuni537 burning near him, the waters under the surface of the earth, such as those in the wells, remain hot during this period. Such waters are cooled when Shiva returns and Brahma goes down to the pātāl: but the return of Shiva causes summer on the earth.538

According to another belief, the sequence of the seasons is controlled by the sun-god.539 There are six ritus or seasons: and the changes in the ritus depend upon the position of the sun in the twelve rāshis or signs of the Zodiac.540 Each ritu lasts for a period of two months, during which time the sun travels through two rāshis. Vasant-ritu is the period which the sun takes to pass through the Min (Pisces) and Mesha (Aries) rāshis. Grishma-ritu corresponds to the time during which the sun passes through Vrishabha (Taurus) and Mithun (Gemini). During Varshā-ritu the sun moves through the signs Karka (Cancer) and Sinha (Leo), and during Sharad-ritu through Kanyā (Virgo) and Tulā (Libra). Hemant-ritu is the time which the sun takes to travel through Vrishchika (Scorpio) and Dhanu (Sagittarius). Shishir-ritu occurs when the sun stands in the Makar (Capricornus) and Kumbha (Aquarius) rāshis.541

Indra (the god of rain), Varuna (the lord of all waters), Vāyu (the god of wind), Agni (the god of fire), and the moon-god are also believed by some to have power over the seasons.542

The belief is as old as the Vedas that demons sometimes obstruct the fall of rain, and confine the waters of the clouds. It is Indra who fights with them and breaks through their castles by means of his thunderbolt, sending down showers of rain for the benefit of his worshippers. So, whenever there is an unusual drought, people still invoke the aid of this god, and celebrate a festival in his honour, called Ujjani or Indramahotsava. Homas543 are performed to propitiate the god, and Brahmans are entertained at a feast. Sometimes the festival is celebrated outside the village, where people go in large parties to dine together. The usual dish on such an occasion is Meghlādu or sweet balls of wheat-flour fried in ghi.

Another favourite ceremony supposed to cause rain to fall is the submersion of the image of Shiva in water, by blocking up the khāl or passage in the Shiva-linga by which water poured over the image usually runs off.542 This ceremony is known as Jala-jātrā. Rudrābhisheka, or the ceremony of pouring water in a constant stream over the image of Shiva for eleven consecutive days and nights, is sometimes performed with the same object.544

Sometimes the assistance of Shringhi rishi is invoked to bring about a fall of rain. The rishi is installed in water, mantras are recited, and prayers are offered before a sacrificial fire. This ceremony, called Parjanya-shānti, is said to have been performed within recent years in Bombay, and to have been successful in bringing rain.545

It is also said that rainfall can be caused by singing a song or a sacred hymn to the malār tune. There is a tradition that the well-known saint Narsinha Mehta once sang this tune on the occasion of the celebration of the first pregnancy of his daughter, and the performance was immediately followed by a shower of rain. Rain, which is brought down in this manner, can be put a stop to by singing to a different tune.546

Low-caste women have recourse to the following expedient to bring rain. Five or six of them place a quantity of muddy earth on a wooden stool, which is carried by one of them. The lump of mud is covered with leaves of the Gidotān or Tindotān creeper, and is called mehulo or meghalo. The whole party then sing songs, and visit every house in the village. A bowl of water is poured over the mehulo and the women receive some corn for their trouble.547

Some believe that when the worship of the village-gods is neglected and when the people grow corrupt, ill-treat the saints and are given to the killing of cows and Brahmans, Yama, the God of Death, directs his colleagues, Indra and Varuna, to threaten the world with a drought. The rainfall returns only when the people revert to righteous ways, and after Indra and Varuna have been conciliated by offerings.

The lower classes of the people believe a prolonged cessation of rain to be due to the wrath of local minor deities, aroused by the neglect of their worship. In such a contingency, therefore, they prepare bāklan548 of uḍad (lentils), lāpsi,549 vadān550 and other dishes, and offer them to the local gods for their propitiation.551

To stop an incessant fall of rain, people often observe the Āladrā vow. The patel or headman issues a proclamation that on a particular day none should cook, or churn whey, or fetch water, or wash clothes, or attend to any of the multifarious household duties; but that all should pass the day in prayer. A complete cessation from toil in favour of earnest devotion to divine powers are the peculiar features of this vow. People do not abstain from food: but food must be prepared on the previous day. If the rains do not cease in spite of this vow, but threaten the village with inundation, the headman leads a procession to the confines of the village and makes an offering to the waters.552

In some places a spinning wheel, sometimes specially constructed of human bones,553 is turned by a naked person in the reverse direction to the usual one, with the object of causing the cessation of immoderate rainfall.554

A cessation of rains is also believed to be brought about by offering an oblation to the god Kasatia, and by the observance of the vow called Kasatia gānth (or tying the knot of Kasatia). The vow lasts for three weeks, and those who observe it do not partake of anything except rice555 (or, according to others, jirān, a kind of spice556).

Some persons attribute a heavy fall of rain to the wrath of Indra, and offer ceremonious prayers to appease that god.557 In some places people engage the services of magicians to restrain the fall of rain.558 Farmers sometimes brand the rain by casting burning sparks upon it in order to stop an incessant fall.559 Vows in honour of samudra (the ocean) are also observed with the same object.553

In the changing circumstances of life, women more readily have recourse to religious vows for the fulfilment of their wishes than men. This fondness of women for vows has brought into vogue a number of vrats or religious observances which are practised by women only. Gangigor or Ganāgor, Vat-Sāvitri, Molākat, Goutrāt, Alavana or Alunda, Eva-vrat, Tulsi-vrat, Umā masheshwar-vrat, and Surya-vrat are instances of such vows.551 The Molākat-vrat is observed by virgins from the eleventh to the fifteenth day of the bright half of Āshādh.560 The Goutrāt-vrat is believed to secure male progeny, as well as long life to the husband. It is observed on the fourth day of the dark half of Shrāvana, on which day women fast till the evening, and then take food after worshipping a cow.561 The object of the Eva-vrat (or Jiva-vrat) is to secure eternal exemption from widowhood, the day for this vow being the last day of Āshādh. It is then necessary to observe a fast till the evening; and the only food allowed is a preparation of wheat, taken at nightfall.562

On the fourth day of the dark half of Shrāvan, women observe a vrat called Bolchoth. In the morning the woman worships a cow and her calf (which must both be of the same colour), applies a little cotton to the horns of the cow, and makes an auspicious mark on the foreheads of both with red lac. She then places an offering of betel and rice before the cow, takes four turns round the pair, and whispers in the ears of the cow the words tārun satya mārun vritya (your truth and my devotion). A Brāhman then recites the legend of the vrat.563

After narrating this story, the Brahman takes the betel and other things placed before the cow. The woman then returns home and takes food for the first time during that day, the meal consisting of loaves of bājrā-flour and some preparation of mag (phaseolus mungo). Some women take ghi and khir: but any preparation of cow’s milk is strictly forbidden. Similarly, there is a prohibition against using things which have been cut by a knife or scissors.564

The worship of the goddess Rāndal is a favourite vrat with Gujarati women. A bower is erected for the installation of the goddess, and a bājat or a wooden stool is placed therein. A piece of fine cloth is spread on the bājat, and a figure is drawn in seeds of corn. A kalasio or bowl, with a cocoanut on it, is placed over the figure. The cocoanut has two eyes painted on it in black collyrium and a nose in red lac, and is decorated with rich clothes and ornaments to represent the goddess Rāndal. Ghi lamps are kept constantly burning before the goddess for three consecutive days and nights. An invitation is sent to the neighbouring women, who bring offerings of ghi to the goddess, and dance in a group at night to the accompaniment of melodious garabis (songs).565 Sometimes, if a child is ill, or some misfortune is apprehended, gorānis, i.e., a certain number of unmarried girls and unwidowed women, are invited to a feast in honour of Rāndal.

On the Nāgapanchami day, i.e., the 5th day of the bright half of Shrāvan,566 women draw an image of a nāg (cobra), and worship it with sprouts of bājrā. In some places it is the custom to avoid all food but khichedi567 on this day.

The wad (the banyan tree) is worshipped on the first day of the dark half of Shrāvan. On that day the woman wears a necklace of fifteen leaves of this tree and prepares a dish called navamuthium.568 A dorā or piece of string is also worn on the person to ward off evil.569

Rishi-panchami,570 Gauri-pujan, Shitalāi-pujan, Shili-sātem are holidays observed only by women. On the Rishi-panchami day only niar571 rice is allowed to those who observe the vrat.572

Besides the observance of vrats, there are other ceremonies, auspicious as well as inauspicious, in which women alone can take part. Only women are concerned with all those ceremonies which are gone through on the birth of a child. On the twelfth day after birth, a name is given to the child by its aunt. The ceremony of making an auspicious mark on the throne of a king is performed by an unwidowed woman or an unmarried girl.573

At the time of a marriage, women make the auspicious mark on the forehead of the bridegroom and carry a lāman-divo574 to fetch ukardi.574 For nine days preceding the date of marriage the bride and the bridegroom are besmeared with pithi or yellow turmeric powder, when auspicious songs are recited by a party of women invited to witness the ceremony. When the bridegroom reaches the entrance of the marriage bower, he is welcomed there by his mother-in-law, who carries him on her hip to his seat in the marriage booth.575

It is necessary to make certain marks on the corpse of a woman, and these marks are made by women only.576 Similarly, women alone take part in the ceremony of getting a widow’s hair shaved on the ninth day after her husband’s death.577

The Shāstras have enjoined the worship of certain higher-grade deities, and have prescribed certain ceremonials for the purpose. But women are not authorised to make use of these ceremonies. The reason is that the Shāstras regard women as inferior to men and do not grant them the privileges given to the latter. They are not allowed to learn the Vedas nor can the Gāyatri-mantra be taught to them. The result is that women are not qualified to perform the ceremonial worship of such higher-grade deities as Vishnu, Shiva, Durgā, Ganpati, and Hanumān;578 similarly the sacrificial rites of Vishnuyāg, Shaktiyāg, Ashvamedha, Rāja-yajna, and Gāyatri-purashcharan can only be performed by men.579

It is the duty of men only to worship the shami tree (prosopis spicegera) on the Dasarā day, and the Hutāshani fire on the day of Holi.579

Women are not allowed to worship the god Kārtikey, who is said to shun women, and to have pronounced a curse against all who visit his image.579

The fifteenth day of the bright half of Chaitra is the anniversary of the birth of Hanumān, and a vrat called Hanumān-jayanti is observed on this day. This vrat,580 as well as the Ganesh-chaturthi-vrat581 are meant only for men.

The ceremonies of Shrāddha582 and the Baleva583 ceremonies can be performed by men only. The duty of giving agni-sanskār575 to corpses, i.e., of performing the necessary rites at a funeral, is also laid on men.

People who practise the art of attaining mastery over spirits and fiends, usually remain naked while they are engaged in the performance of their mysterious rites. There are many branches of this black art: for instance, Māran,584 Uchchātan,585 Lamban, Vashīkaran,586 Mohan,587 Stambhan,588 etc., and although the meli vidyā (sacrilegious art) is not held in respect by high-class Hindus, it is popular among the lower classes. There is a belief that knowledge of this art dooms a person to hell; but it secures to those who master it a position of much importance, and therefore finds many followers. The art consists in the knowledge of certain mysterious incantations, which enable a person to influence the spirits and to bring about certain results through their agency. Not only has every person when learning this art, to remain naked, but all those who make prayogas or experiments in it afterwards must observe the same precaution. The night of Kāli-chaudas or the 14th day of the dark half of Ashvin, is considered to be the most favourable time for the sādhan or accomplishment of this secret art of remaining naked.589 On this day, it is the custom of those who exercise the art, to go stripped to a cemetery in the dead of night, and to cook food in a human skull as an offering to the spirits residing in the neighbourhood. On the same night, some sorcerers, after stripping themselves, are said to ride round the village on some mysterious conveyance.590

A practice is noted among low-class people of performing a sādhana before the goddess Jhāmpadi for the sake of progeny. The man who performs the sādhana, has first to go naked to a cemetery on a Sunday night, and to fetch therefrom the ashes of a corpse. At the time of the sādhana, the man takes his seat on a corpse, fills a madaliun or hollow bracelet with the ashes brought from the cemetery, and puts it on his arm above the elbow.591

Dhobis, Mālis, Vālands and other low-caste people remain naked while worshipping Bhairav.592 In the performance of the anushthān (propitiation) of such deities as Kāl-Bhairav,593 Batuk,593 Mani,594 Griva,594 etc., the devotees keep their persons uncovered. The worshippers of the goddess Jakshani also remain naked when they attend upon her.595

Persons who practise the art of curing men from the effects of serpent-bites by means of incantations, have to sit naked under water in order to gain efficacy for their mantras.592

Followers of the Devi-panth, Shakti-panth and Aghori-panth sects remain naked while worshipping or offering victims to their gods.596 Vāma-mārgis worship a nude image of the goddess Digambarā.591

The hook-shaped instrument, known as ganeshio, which is used by thieves in boring a hole through the walls of a house, is sometimes prepared by a blacksmith and his wife on the night of Kāli-chaudas, both being naked at the time. Instruments prepared in this fashion are believed to secure success for the thief, who scrupulously sets aside the first booty acquired by the help of the ganeshio for the blacksmith as a reward for his services. He does not grudge the reward however large the booty may be.590

In making dice according to the directions of Ramalashāstra, the workers should remain naked.595

There is a belief that granulations in the eyes of a child are cured if the maternal uncle fetches naked the beads of the Arani tree, and puts a circlet of them round the neck of the child.597

If a person uncovers himself on hearing the screech of an owl, and then ties and unties seven knots in a piece of string, repeating the process twenty-one times, the piece of string is believed to possess the virtue of curing Taria Tāv or periodical fever.598 Another remedy for the same ailment is to go to a distance of three miles from the village and there to eat food which has been cooked in a state of nudity.589

In the preparation of Nargudikalpa599 or Gujakalpa599, some drugs have to be procured by a naked person.600

It is considered meritorious by some persons to rise early in the morning and to bathe naked on the Makar Sankrānti day.601

A Brahman boy must be naked at the time of the performance of his thread investiture ceremony. After the ceremony, the maternal uncle of the boy presents garments to him, which he thereupon puts on.602

In Gujarat, for the most part, the people seem to be unacquainted with the belief that certain stones possess the virtue of influencing the rain. Some persons however attribute this quality to the stones on such sacred mounts as Girnār, Ābu, and Pāvāgadh.603 There is a point called Tonk, on mount Girnār, of which it is said that rain is certain to fall whenever anyone succeeds in climbing it.604 There is also a common belief that arasi marble if heated has influence over rain.605

It is a common practice to submerge the image606 of Shiva in water with the object of bringing rain. Similarly the image606 of the goddess Harshadh is sometimes bathed when rain is desired.607 The bhuva or the bhui, i.e., the male and the female attendants of the goddess are at the same time given a bath, and an offering of Khir608 is made to the goddess.607

There are two goals which a pious Hindu tries to attain by leading a life of purity and virtue, viz., (i) moksha or final emancipation, merging into the Eternal Spirit, and (ii) swarga (heaven or paradise) where meritorious persons enjoy pure pleasures unalloyed by earthly cares. The stars are the spirits of so many righteous persons who are translated to swarga for their good actions, and are endowed with a lustre proportionate to their individual merits. But every moment of enjoyment in swarga diminishes the store of merit: and those whose whole merit is thus exhausted, on receiving their proportionate share of pleasures, must resume their worldly existence. The Bhagavad-gītā says: “क्षीणे पुण्ये मर्त्यलोकं विशन्ति” i.e., “they enter the mortal world when their merit is expended.” Meteors are believed to be spirits of this description who fall from their position as stars, to live again on this earth.609

Another explanation of meteors is that they are the sparks produced when the vimāns (or vehicles) of celestial people clash against each other.610

Meteors are also held to be the agār or charak (i.e., excreta) dropped either by a curious water-bird,600 or by Garud, the favourite eagle, and vehicle of Vishnu,611 or by a fabulous bird Anal.612 The latter is said to fly at an immeasurable height from the surface of the earth, and to take food only once a day.612 It is almost impossible to catch the charak when it falls to earth: but if ever it can be secured, the application of it to the eyes of a blind man will restore his eyesight. It also furnishes an effective remedy for leprosy, and gives a golden lustre to the body of a person suffering from that disease.611

Some declare that meteors are stars which fall owing to the curse of Indra, and subsequently assume the highest human form on earth.613

It is also said that the stars descend to earth in human form when sins accumulate in the celestial world.614

The influence of meteors on human affairs is treated at length in the Varāhasanhitā.615 The phenomenon is popularly regarded as an evil omen: it is supposed to portend devastation by fire, an earthquake, a famine, an epidemic, danger from thieves, and storms at sea.616 The appearance of a bright shooting star is supposed to foretell the death of some great man;617 and on beholding one, it is customary to repeat the words ‘Rām Rām’618 several times.619 A shower of meteors is believed to presage some civil commotion or a change in the ruling dynasties.

Some persons, however, regard the appearance of meteors as auspicious or baneful, according to the mandal or group of stars, from which they are seen to fall. Meteors from the Vāyu-mandal, (or the group of stars known by the name of Vāyu) portend the breaking out of an epidemic: those from Varuna-mandal, are believed to be favourable to human happiness; if they fall from Indra-mandal, they forebode danger to all kings; those from Agni-mandal, threaten war between nations.620

During the monsoons, rain is believed to fall in that direction in which a meteor is seen to shoot.621 A meteor in the west is ominous to kings, and if it falls into the sea, it forebodes evil to the dwellers on earth.622

The appearance of a comet is believed to portend some dire calamity to the king and the nation.622 It is said that if a heavenly body is seen, chhogālo,623 chhogālā kings (i.e., great and celebrated kings) are in danger of their lives.624 A comet is also believed to threaten all tailed animals with destruction.624