The vegetable oils are of two distinct classes: the drying or setting represented by linseed, the unctuous represented by rape-oil. They consist of two proximate elements, margarine and oleine; in all probability they will vary in their proportion of these, but in what degree I have not been able to ascertain. Though the agricultural chemists make no distinction, as far as I am aware, between these two classes of oils, the practitioners in medicine use them for distinct purposes. Cod-liver oil has been long used for pulmonary complaints; latterly, olive, almond, and rape oils are being employed as substitutes. These are all of the unctuous class of oils. Mr. Rhind, the intelligent medical practitioner of this village, called my attention to some experiments by Dr. Leared, published in the Medical Times, July 21st, 1855, with oleine alone, freed from margarine, which showed marked superiority in the effect; and I now learn from Mr. Rhind that he is at present using with success the pure oleine, prepared by Messrs. Price & Co., from cocoa-nut oil, one of the unctuous class. That linseed and others of the drying oils are used in medicine for a very different purpose, it seems unnecessary to state.

The oleine of oil is known to be more easy of consumption and more available for respiration than margarine—a property to which its use in medicine may be attributable. If we examine the animal fats, tallow, suet, and other fat, they are almost wholly of the solid class, stearine or margarine, closely resembling or identical with the margarine in plants; whilst butter is composed of oleine and margarine, combining both the proximate elements found in vegetable oils.

It seems worthy of remark that a cow can yield a far greater weight of butter than she can store up in solid fat; numerous instances occur where a cow gives off two pounds of butter per day, or fourteen pounds per week, whilst half that quantity will probably rarely be laid on in fat. If you allow a cow to gain sixteen pounds per week, and reckon seven for fat, there will only remain nine pounds for flesh, or, deducting the moisture, scarcely three pounds (2.97) per week, equal to .42, or less than half a pound per day, of dry fibrin.

The analyses of butter show a very varying proportion of oleine and margarine fats: summer butter usually contains of oleine sixty and margarine forty per cent., whilst in winter butter these proportions are reversed, being forty of oleine to sixty of margarine. By ordinary treatment the quantity of butter during winter is markedly inferior. The common materials for dairy cows in winter are straw with turnips or mangel, hay alone, or hay with mangel. If we examine these materials, we find them deficient in oil, or in starch, sugar, etc. If a cow consume two stones or twenty-eight pounds of hay a day, which is probably more than she can be induced to eat on an average, it will be equal in dry material to more than one hundred pounds of young grass, which will also satisfy a cow. That one hundred pounds of young grass will yield more butter, will scarcely admit of a doubt. The twenty-eight pounds of hay will be equal in albuminous matter and in oil to the one hundred pounds of grass; but in the element of starch, sugar, etc., there is a marked difference. During the growth of the plant, the starch and sugar are converted into woody fibre, in which form they are scarcely digestible or available for respiration. It seems, then, not improbable that, when a cow is supplied with hay only, she will consume some portion of the oleine oil for respiration, and yield a less quantity of butter poorer in oleine.

If you supply turnips or mangel with hay, the cow will consume less of hay; you thereby substitute a material richer in sugar, etc., and poorer in oil. Each of these materials, in the quantity a cow can consume, is deficient in the supply of albumen necessary to keep up the condition of an animal giving a full yield of milk. To effect this, recourse must be had to artificial or concentrated substances of food, rich in albuminous matter.

It can scarcely be expected, nor is it desirable, that practical farmers should apply themselves to the attainment of proficiency in the art of chemical investigations; this is more properly the occupation of the professor of science. The following simple experiment, however, seems worth mentioning. On several occasions, during winter, I procured samples of butter from my next neighbor. On placing these, with a like quantity of my own, in juxtaposition before the fire, my butter melted with far greater rapidity—by no means an unsafe test of a greater proportion of oleine.

The chemical investigation of our natural and other grasses has hitherto scarcely had the attention which it deserves. The most valuable information on this subject is in the paper by Professor Way, on the nutritive and fattening properties of the grasses, in vol. xiv., p. 171, of the Royal Agricultural Society’s Journal. These grasses were nearly all analyzed at the flowering time, a stage at which no occupier of grass-land would expect so favorable a result in fattening. We much prefer pastures with young grass not more than a few inches high, sufficient to afford a good bite. With a view to satisfy myself as to the difference of composition of the like grasses at different stages of growth, I sent to Professor Way a specimen of the first crop of hay, cut in the end of June, when the grass was in the early stage of flowering, and one of aftermath, cut towards the close of September, from the same meadow, the analyses of which I give:

A comparison between these will show a much greater percentage of woody fibre,—27.41 in the first crop to 19.77 in the aftermath. The most remarkable difference, however, is in the proportion of oil, being 2.68 in the first crop to 6.84 in the aftermath.

On inquiry from an observing tenant of a small dairy farm of mine, who has frequently used aftermath hay, I learn that, as compared with the first crop, he finds it induces a greater yield of milk, but attended with some impoverishment in the condition of the cow, and that he uses it without addition of turnips or other roots, which he gives when using hay of the first crop—an answer quite in accordance with what might be expected from its chemical composition.

It is likewise to be presumed that the quickness of growth will materially affect the composition of grasses, as well as of other vegetables. Your gardener will tell you that if radishes are slow in growth they will be tough and woody; that asparagus melts in eating, like butter, and salad is crisp when grown quickly. The same effect will, I apprehend, be found in grasses of slow growth: they will contain more of woody fibre, with less of starch or sugar. The quality of butter grown on poor pastures is characterized by greater solidity than on rich feeding pastures. The cows, having to travel over more space, require a greater supply of the elements of respiration, whilst the grasses grown on these poor pastures contain, in all probability, less of these in a digestible form available for respiration. The like result seems probable as from common winter treatment—a produce of butter less in quantity, and containing a greater proportion of margarine, and a less of oleine.

It is well known that pastures vary greatly in their butter-producing properties; there is, however, as far as I am aware, no satisfactory explanation of this. If you watch cows on depasture, you observe them select their own food; if you supply cows in stall alike with food, they will also select for themselves. I give rape-cake as a mixture to all, and induce them to eat the requisite quantity; yet some will select the rape-cake first, and eat it up clean, whilst others rather neglect it till towards the close of their meal, and then leave pieces in the trough. Two Alderneys,—the only cows of the kind I have as yet had,—whose butter-producing qualities are well known, are particularly fond of rape-cake, and never leave a morsel. May not these animals be prompted by their instinct to select such food as is best suited to their wants and propensities? If so, it seems of the greatest importance that the dairyman should be informed of the properties of food most suitable for his purpose, especially whilst in a stall, where they have little opportunity of selecting.

It appears worth the attention of our society to make inquiries as to the localities which are known as producing milk peculiarly rich in butter. When travelling in Germany, I well recollect being treated with peculiarly rich milk, cream, and butter, on my tour between Dresden and Toplitz, at the station or resting-place on the chaussée or turnpike-road, before you descend a very steep incline to the valley in which Toplitz is situated. I travelled this way after an interval of several years, when the same treat was again offered. It was given as a rarity, and can only be accounted for by the peculiar adaptation of the herbage of the country for the production of butter.

Comparison of different methods of Feeding Dairy Cows.

—Being desirous of comparing the result of my method of feeding dairy cows with the system usually practised in this locality, it occurred to me that, as my cows had been accustomed to savory steamed food, a change to ordinary food would be attended with less favorable results than if they had been previously treated in the common mode; and that, under these circumstances, it would be better to institute comparisons with two near neighbors, Mr. Smith and Mr. Pawson, whose practice and results I had the opportunity of inspecting.

Mr. Smith’s cow was of rather small frame, but noted for her usefulness as a good milker. At the time of calving her third calf; about the 12th of November, she was in good condition, and gave, soon after, seventeen quarts of milk per day. Her owner states that in the first three weeks (up to the time this comparison was begun) her condition sensibly diminished—a result which I apprehend will be invariable with cows giving this quantity of milk when fed on meadow hay only, with which Mr. Smith’s cow was supplied ad libitum, and of which she consumed twenty-eight pounds per day. Mr. Pawson’s was a nice heifer, three years old at the time of calving her first calf, October 6th, in more than ordinary condition, and gave about sixteen quarts per day. Her owner states that on the first of January her condition was much diminished. This is corroborated by Mr. Myers, a dealer in the village, who tells me that, previous to her calving, he was desirous of purchasing her, and would have given from seventeen pounds ten shillings to eighteen pounds, and describes her as being at that time full of beef. Her weight on the first of January, 7 cwt. 2 qrs., bespeaks her condition as much lowered.

During the month of October, and till late in November, she was turned out in the daytime to graze on aftermath, and housed during the night, where she was supplied with turnips. From the close of November till the first week in February, her food consisted of

After this the ground oats were discontinued, and meadow hay of good quality was given ad libitum, with forty-five pounds of turnips.

For comparison I selected a cow of my own, which calved about the 8th of October, and gave soon after eighteen quarts of milk per day; she was also of small size. At the time of calving her condition was somewhat higher than that of Mr. Smith’s. When the experiment was begun, on the first of January, no perceivable difference was found in the yield of milk of Mr. Smith’s cow and my own, each giving fifteen and a half quarts per day.

The following table gives the dates of calving of the three cows, together with their weights and yield of milk at the commencement and termination of the experiment:

Mr. Smith’s cow lost in weight in nine weeks 84 pounds, being 9¹⁄₃ pounds per week, with an average yield of 12¹⁄₂ quarts per day. Mr. Pawson’s lost 28 pounds. This loss, together with the diminished yield of milk, occurred almost wholly after the oats had been withdrawn; her weight on the 6th of February being still 7 cwt. 2 qrs., and her yield of milk 11 quarts per day.

My cow has gained in the nine weeks 56 lbs., being 6¹⁄₄ pounds per week, with an average yield of 14 quarts, the diminution being regular. January 1st, 15¹⁄₂; Feb. 4th, 14; March 4th, 12¹⁄₂; making an average yield of 14 quarts per day. The whole loss and gain of weight will be in flesh and fat, the cows having kept up their consumption of food and their bulk.

The weekly account of profit and loss will stand as follows:

The richer quality of the manure will probably compensate for the extra labor, cooking, and attention bestowed upon my cow.

With a view of extending the comparison, give particulars of the whole of my cows the weights of which were registered on the 8th of October, and which were still on hand, free from calf, and in a state admitting of comparison. These were bought at a neighboring market in but moderate condition, and were young, having had two or three calves each. A cow in full condition attains her maximum yield in a week or so after calving; whilst those in lower condition continue, by my treatment, to increase their quantity up to about a month after calving.

My cows, during the period under consideration, were treated as follows: During August and September they were on open pasture by day and housed by night; evening and morning they were supplied with mown grass, and two feeds of steamed mixture. Towards the close of September green rape was substituted for the mown grass, with the same allowance of steamed mixture; from the 8th of October, when they were wholly housed, they were supplied with steamed food ad libitum three times per day. After each meal ten to twelve pounds of green rape-plant were given, and nine pounds of hay per day till November; from that time steamed food with cabbages or kohl rabi till the early part or February, when mangold wurzel was substituted. It will be observed that I give hay and roots in limited quantities, and the steamed food ad libitum. I prefer this to apportioning the cake and other concentrated food in equal quantities to each, as this steamed mixture contains more of the elements essential to milk, and each cow is thus at liberty to satisfy her requirements with it. Nos. 2 and 4, which have given the greatest quantity of milk, have eaten more than their share; whilst No. 1, which has given the least milk, has scarcely eaten more than half the quantity of steamed mixture consumed by 2 or 4. The yield of milk and the live weights on the 4th of February and the 4th of March scarcely vary. During February thirty-four pounds of mangold were substituted for kohl rabi; with this change the cows became mere relaxed. My experience in weighing, extending over several years, has shown me that when animals, from change of food, become more relaxed or more costive, their weighings in the former state denote less, whilst in the latter they denote more, than their actual gain in condition. I have known instances in which a month’s weighing, accompanied by relaxation, has shown no gain, whilst, with restored consistency, the gain doubled.

I now proceed to examine the materials of food, their composition, and the probable changes they undergo in the animal economy.

Quantity and description of food supplied to six cows during twenty-seven and a third weeks, and its composition in proximate elements and minerals.

ANALYSIS OF MILK BY HAIDLEN.

Production of milk by 6 cows, average 14 quarts per day each, for 27¹⁄₃ weeks = 16,072 quarts, which at 41 oz. per quart = 41,184 lbs.

ANALYSIS OF EXCREMENT BY PROFESSOR WAY.

The analyses of the chief ingredients of my own produce, or such extra materials as I usually purchase, have been made by Professor Way; for other materials I have had recourse to a very useful compilation by Mr. Hemming (vol. xiii., p. 449, of the Society’s Journal), and to Morton’s “Cyclopædia of Agriculture.” The analysis of straw is that of oat-straw; that of green food is derived from the analysis of rape-plant, cabbages, and kohl rabi. During February and March I have been using wheat and barley straw with marigold, and, as these materials contain less oil, I give in the steamed food three ounces of linseed-oil per day to each animal. For the composition of milk I adopt that by Haidlen, whose method of analysis is reputed to be the most accurate, the proportion of butter in my milk being this season very similar to that given by him.

It will be observed that this is the gross return for twenty-seven and one third weeks from the time of calving, from which will have to be deducted expense of attendance, etc.

From these statements it will be seen that materials used as food for cattle represent double the value they would do if used for manure, whilst that portion converted into food fitted for the use of man represents a value thirteen to fourteen times greater than it would as manure.

It then appears clear that it is for the feeder’s profit to use his produce as much as possible as food for cattle, with the view to convert it with the utmost economy into food for man, and thus increase rather than enrich his manure-heap.

The calculation of caseine in milk is based upon the supposition that my milk is equal in its proportion of that element to that analyzed by Haidlen. Several analyses by other chemists show a less percentage, 4 to 4.50. As my cows are adequately supplied with albuminous matter, I have a right to presume on their milk being rich in caseine.

The loss of nitrogen by perspiration, 150.65 lbs., is nearly 17 per cent. Boussingault found a loss of 13.50 of nitrogen in a cow giving milk.

Either the rape-cake or bran alone suffices for the restoration of the phosphoric acid.

The amount of phosphoric acid in the manure is 393 pounds, being about sixteen per cent. of the whole ash or mineral matter. The ash of meadow hay contains about 14 per cent., that of rape-cake 30 per cent., bran 50 per cent., malt-combs 25 per cent., and turnips, &c., 10 per cent. of phosphoric acid.

The amount of potash in the excrement is 616 pounds, being about 25 per cent. of the whole ash or mineral matter. The ash of meadow hay contains about 20 per cent.; rape-cake, 21 per cent.; malt-combs, 37 per cent.; turnips (various), 44 per cent.; from which it may be inferred that the sample of excrement sent to Professor Way for analysis did not contain more than a fair proportion of these ingredients.

To ascertain the quantity of excrement, the contents of the tanks into which the cows had dropped their solid and liquid excrement during five weeks were weighed, and found to be 500 cwt. 2 qrs. 0 lbs, from 18 cows, being 88 lbs. per cow per day. The sample for analysis was taken from that which the cows had deposited within the preceding 24 hours. This was collected in the mud-cart, well blended, and sent off quite fresh.

It is sufficiently proved, by the experience of this district, that 20 pounds of meadow hay suffice for the maintenance of a cow of fair size in store condition; a like result is stated to be obtained from 120 pounds of turnips per day. The six cows will have then required, during the 27¹⁄₃ weeks, for their maintenance, only

They will further have required adequate food—

I omit the minerals, which are observed to be in excess of the requirements.

For the maintenance of a fair-sized cow, for one day, in a normal state, the following elements seem adequate:

When cows are in milk, there occurs a much greater activity of the functions; they eat and drink more, evacuate more excrement, and, in all probability, spend considerably more food in respiration. Whilst the 17.60 lbs. per day dry matter in 20 lbs. of hay are found adequate for the maintenance of a cow in a store state, the six cows in milk have eaten on the average 21.37 lbs. solid matter per day during the 27¹⁄₃ weeks. When I have fattened cattle together with a number of milch cows of similar size, which gave on an average eight quarts of milk per day, the whole being fed with moist steamed food, and receiving the same allowance of green food, I have found the fattening cattle refuse water, whilst the milch cows on the average drank upwards of 40 pounds per day of water given separately. The eight quarts of milk contain only about 17.58 lbs. of water; still, in several analyses of excrement, I have noticed little difference in the percentage of moisture in that from the fattening animals as compared with that from cows giving milk.

These facts would seem to show that upwards of 20 lbs. more water were given off from the lungs and pores of the skin of a milking than of a fattening animal.

The excrement of the six milch cows, 88 lbs. per day on the average, is found to contain of nitrogen 36, equal to that in 2.25 lbs. of albumen; whilst 1.85 of albumen in the 20 lbs. of hay is found adequate for maintenance.

On comparing the supply of the food to the six milch cows with their requirements and production, there seems an excess in the albuminous matter, a deficiency in the oil for the fat and butter, an excess in the starch, &c. Taking, however, the increased activity of the animal functions, and consequent consumption of food by the milch cow, I am not encouraged to lower my standard of food. That it has sufficed is abundantly proved, as each of the six cows under observation has gained in condition during 27¹⁄₃ weeks.

My observations on nutrition tend to the conclusion that if you supply animals with starch, sugar, &c., to satisfy their requirements for respiration, you enable them to convert the oil of their food into butter or fat to such extent as their particular organism is fitted for effecting it.

On the 12th of March I purchased Mr. Smith’s cow (see p. 392) for twelve pounds ten shillings, being more than her market value, for the purpose of trying her on my food; her yield of milk had then diminished to 8 quarts per day. On the 31st of March, four weeks from the former weighing, and nineteen days after being treated with my food, her yield of milk had increased to 9¹⁄₂ quarts per day, and her weight to 8 cwt. 1 qr., being 28 lbs. increase.

Mr. Pawson’s cow, which was continued on the same food, namely, meadow hay ad libitum, and a more limited supply of turnips, reduced her yield of milk to less than 5 quarts per day, without alteration in her weight.

My cow first placed on trial with those of Mr. Smith and Mr. Pawson gave a yield of milk of 12 quarts per day, and gained 28 lbs. in the four weeks, her weight on the 31st of March being 10 cwt. 2 qrs.

The weight and the yield of milk of the six, on the 31st of March, were:

On referring to the previous weighing, there was little or no gain from Feb. 4th to March 4th, the cows being at that time in a somewhat more relaxed state. During March they wholly regained their consistency. The gain shown in the weighing, March 31, by the six cows, appears therefore unusually great. It should, however, be computed as made during the eight weeks from Feb. 4th to March 31, being with an average yield of nearly 12 quarts (11.66) per day each, at the rate of 8¹⁄₆ lbs. each per week on the average.

No. 11, it will be observed, is stated as giving more milk on the 31st than on the 4th of March. It occasionally happens that cows drop their yield of milk for a day or two, and then regain it, especially when in use. The whole of these six cows were kept free from calf till February, when Nos. 2 and 4 were sent to bull. I had some hesitation in regard to No. 4, from her having suffered from pleuro. Her milk, tested by a lactometer, denoted a less than average proportion of cream; still, in quantity, and keeping up its yield for a length of time, being of more than ordinary capability; I decided to retain her.

Nos. 1 and 7, which are giving respectively 8 and 10 quarts per day, are in a state of fatness; they will probably be sold in June as prime fat, when their yield of milk will probably be 6 and 8 quarts per day each. They may be expected to fetch twenty pounds to twenty-three pounds. No. 6 is also in a state of forwardness. No. 11, which suffered considerably from pleuro, is in comparatively lower condition.

During the season from the close of October to the close of January, I avoid purchasing near-calving cows, which are then unusually dear, my replenishments being made with cows giving a low range of milk, and intended for fattening. I find them more profitable than those which are quite dry. The present season I had additional grounds for abstaining from buying high-priced cows, from the recent presence of pleuro.

On the 2d of March I had occasion to purchase a calving cow, which was reported to have calved on the 28th of February. Her weight on the 4th of March was 9 cwt. 1 qr. I supplied her with 35 lbs. of mangold, and hay ad libitum., of which she ate 22 lbs. per day. The greatest yield she attained was somewhat more than 13 quarts per day. On the 31st of March her weight was 9 cwt., being a loss of 28 lbs. in four weeks. Her yield of milk had diminished to 11¹⁄₄ quarts per day. A week after this her milk, during six days, was kept apart, and averaged 10 quarts per day; being at first rather more, at the close rather less, than this. The cream produced from these 10 quarts was 9 pints, the butter 63 oz. The butter from each quart of cream was 14 oz. The proportion of butter to milk was 63 oz. from 60 quarts—rather more than 1 oz. per quart.

An equal quantity of milk from a cow (calved Oct. 8th) treated with steamed food, and set apart for comparison, gave less than 7 pints of cream, which produced 79 oz. of butter.

In quality and agreeableness the butter from steamed food and cake was decidedly superior to that from hay and mangold.

Mr. Stansfeld, of Chertsey, has supplied me with the following interesting particulars of two Alderney cows which were treated as follows:

From Dec. 1st to Jan 15th, with Swedes and meadow hay.

From Jan. 15th to Feb. 17th, pulped and fermented Swedes, meadow hay, and 3 lbs. rape-cake, 2 lbs. bean-meal, 2 lbs. bran, 2 lbs. malt-combs.

From Feb. 17th to May 1st, 5 lbs. rape-cake, 2 lbs. bran, 2 lbs. malt-combs.

Results:

December 1st to January 15th, yield of butter from each quart of cream, 10³⁄₄ oz.

January 15th to February 17th, yield of butter from each quart of cream, 14 oz.

February 17th to May 1st, yield of butter from each quart of cream, 18²⁄₃ oz.

The yield of butter in proportion to milk, Dec. 1st to Jan. 15th, is described as unsatisfactory.

The yield of butter in proportion to milk, Feb. 17th to May, as 2 oz. per quart, which is their maximum proportion.

Soon after calving the two cows gave 18 quarts of milk per day; on the 15th of May, 15 quarts per day.

Mr. Stansfeld has completely satisfied himself that by the process of fermentation the turnip loses its disagreeable taste, and that his butter is of excellent quality.

If I take the supply of turnips, 120 lbs. per day, as requisite for the maintenance only of the cow, the nutritive elements will be:

The food supplied to the cow consists of: