This need is clearly reflected in Captain Anderson’s report concerning geysers:

I find there is a general belief in the minds of the tourists that there is some measure of regularity in the period of eruptions of most if not all of the geysers. At various times during the last three years I have had records made by the guards of the observed eruptions. Of course, these do not include all of the geysers, nor have all of the eruptions of any one of them been noted. I enclose for publication as an appendix to this report, a table made of observation upon them during the past three years. A casual inspection of it reveals the fact that none but Old Faithful has the slightest pretense to regularity.[333]

A rhythmic regularity was there all right, but, strangely enough, it required the careful observation of the casual scientist to discover a fact which entirely escaped the more permanent, but less observant, soldiers. In 1926 the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution directed Dr. Eugene T. Allen and Dr. Arthur L. Day to make an exhaustive study of Yellowstone’s thermal features. After seven seasons of research, in cooperation with the National Park Service, they were able to publish a monumental treatise on this subject.[334] Later observations by such naturalists as George Marler, W. Verde Watson, and Herbert Lystrup not only confirmed the principle of rhythmic recurrence in many cases but discovered behavior patterns that enabled rangers to forecast a given eruption with uncanny accuracy.

Factors of this character were in the mind of Secretary of the Interior Franklin K. Lane in 1915 when he appointed Stephen T. Mather as his assistant. Mr. Mather’s portfolio particularly related to the formulation of an integrated National Park policy.

Chapter XV
THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE

Although there were thirteen national parks in 1912, each received a separate appropriation and had separate management. The business of these playgrounds was scattered among three departments, and nowhere in Washington was there a single official or desk wholly devoted to their interest.[335] To this problem Stephen Tyng Mather brought high intelligence, sound philosophy, and supreme endeavor. By 1915 he had achieved administrative experience that ripened into wisdom equal to undertake the preservation of America’s scenic and recreational heritage.

With this general proposition in mind, Mr. Mather made two visits to Yellowstone during the season of 1915. There he carefully analyzed the administrative policies and personnel. While it is only fair to state that other federal officials were also planning a new national park organization and procedure it was largely Mr. Mather’s Yellowstone report that provided the needed impetus. From then on he supplied the energy, foresight, and devotion to effect a transition.

On August 25, 1916 the National Park Service Bill received President Wilson’s signature. This measure placed the control and general supervision of the entire national park activity squarely into the hands of a Director of National Parks. The bill was sponsored by Senator Reed Smoot of Utah and Representative William Kent of California.

Thereafter, on October 1, 1916, the troops of U.S. Cavalry left Fort Yellowstone for duty along the Mexican border. With C. A. Lindsley as Acting Superintendent a fine ranger corps was organized of mountain scouts and released soldiers. Shortly afterwards Congress reversed its action and voted to deny the use of Department of the Interior funds for protective purposes. This forced the return of the soldiers, and the army resumed control on June 30, 1917.

During the next six months National Park Service officials, aided by the army officers, gathered data which proved the inadvisability of continuing the use of troops. It should be noted that the attitude of the officers throughout was cogently expressed by Captain Harris:

And it is believed that to the extent in which the present method of government and protection is an improvement upon former methods it is due to the visible power and force of the National Government as represented by the military garrison in the Park.

It is not to be inferred that the claim is made that a military government is the only one practicable for the Park, or even that it is the best adapted or most suitable. It is believed, however, that no efficient protection can be given to the Park without the support of a well-organized and disciplined police force of some description.[336]

In this spirit, the cost of a military garrison and its lack of opportunities to drill were reviewed. It was clearly demonstrated that a ranger force of a chief ranger, four assistants, twenty-five permanent Park rangers of the first class, and twenty-five seasonal rangers would constitute a “well-organized and disciplined police force” and something else besides. It was also pointed out that the cost would be considerably less. This effort resulted in a second withdrawal of the troops in 1918. At the same time another ranger force was effected with substantially the same personnel as developed in 1916.[337] In due time the members of this new corps acquired a modest attitude of confidence in their own capacity which still abides.

Mr. Mather assumed office as the first National Park Director on May 16, 1917. In a short time the fruits of his vision were disclosed. Under his inspiring leadership the National Park program was steadily expanded. Peace was made with, and a degree of cooperation obtained from, the natural antagonists of the National Park Service. Several wealthy citizens who had acquired vast private estates were induced to donate portions thereof for the general public. Sportsmen who had observed the diminution in numbers of wild creatures were converted to the idea of refuges through self-interest. The positions of the lumber, grazing, irrigation, and water-power interests were less yielding on this all-out conservation issue. They would evidently favor a compromise. The general public gradually responded to the suggestion that the country beautiful was even more alluring than beautiful cities.[338]

In Secretary Lane’s third annual report in 1919 the National Park Service policy was announced under three broad principles:

First, that the National Parks must be maintained in absolutely unimpaired form for the use of future generations as well as those of our own time; Second, that they are set apart for the use, observation, health, and pleasure of the people; and Third, that the national interest must dictate all decisions affecting public or private enterprise in the Parks.[339]

Since then the program has made steady progress. Its purposes and policies have been enlarged and clarified. The acceptable qualities of parkhood were defined. Such an area must be supremely significant, having a national appeal whether scenic, archaeological, scientific, or historical. Only such features of natural architecture were to be included as would represent the highest accomplishment within its class. For example, Grand Canyon of the Colorado exemplifies the most extraordinary achievement of stream erosion, whereas Yellowstone is most unique in the realm of thermal activity.[340]

The National Park represents the apex of the conservation program, wherein the principle of optimum use is the dominating force. The twin purposes of enjoyment plus conservation always remain uppermost. Commercialization beyond actual requirements is not to be tolerated, and to this end close supervision is maintained.

Natural species of animals and plants were to abide in normal relationships, free from man’s interference, except under urgent circumstances such as were described in the discussion of wild life control. The primitive appearance of Yellowstone forests is distasteful to some people. It was a carping German traveler who said, “Look at your dead trees and burned stumps in the woods ... and your streams are full of driftwood. It is not cared for.”[341] In that sense Yellowstone is not a park but a wilderness full of the beauty of natural disorder. All things remain as nature leaves them. No man disturbs landslide, log jam, or wind-swept lodgepole avalanche.

The appearance of the trails, roads, bridges, buildings, and facilities of all kinds is gradually being brought into harmony with the natural environment. Under the guidance of landscape artists, structural design and location are made conformable to maximum scenic advantages while at the same time, being inconspicuous themselves. A few examples will illustrate this trend toward artificial recession. In 1889 Captain Boutelle complained against the statute which prescribed that no hotel shall be erected within four hundred and forty yards of any object of interest. He urged a reduction of one-half the distance.[342] Now, all the accommodations in the immediate Grand Canyon area are being moved a modest distance away, where they will still provide the services which visitors need, but not intrude upon the natural scene. Another case is afforded by the bear shows. Formerly they were provided in several places; then modified to a less artificial presentation on Otter Creek. In 1942 they were discontinued. It is truly exciting for thousands of people to observe thirty or forty grizzlies jostle and cuff each other around a “combination salad” platform. Still, the circumstance is highly artificial, a sort of Roman holiday affair, and therefore inappropriate. It is hoped that the Lord of all American wild life may be allowed to go his way undisturbed, otherwise grizzlies may become “holdup bears and bums.” Such an eventuality, on a nocturnal basis of operation, is by no means improbable. That development would consign this magnificent animal to a precipitous disappearance from the earth.

Yellowstone’s educational opportunities were early recognized and utilized by the scientists. The passing of time has widened this field-study interest. Supervised groups now come from all parts of America, with individual scientists hailing from both home and abroad. In fact, more than a hundred specialists have spent from a few weeks to several years in the Park. The results of these efforts have run up the volume of scientific titles to approximately five hundred.

By 1920 naturalist activity was in the course of development, the outcome of an avowed purpose to facilitate the real enjoyment of the people. To this work Director Mather brought especial perception, skill, and even personal funds. In fact, he may be considered as the father of the movement. It was in 1918, when visiting Lake Tahoe, that Mather observed the activities of a young man named Harold Bryant, whom the management had employed to interpret nature to their guests. Dr. Bryant’s work so impressed the Director that he took him to Yosemite where his success with the public was immediate. Ranger-naturalists were appointed in other parks, and later Dr. H. C. Bryant was placed in charge of the educational branch of the service. Two notable institutions quickly caught the vision and cooperated. In 1925 the Yosemite School of Natural History was founded as a non-profit scientific organization. Courses in botany, zoology, and geology were given. Emphasis was placed on field work, and the final trip lasted two weeks. The instructional staff was composed largely of University of California professors, while the twenty trainees were chosen from a hundred candidates.[343] In 1935 Yale University furthered the naturalist incentive by providing a fellowship. Since 1937 two have been granted. Yellowstone Park has taken advantage of these services.

After a decade of experimentation in field trips, fireside lectures, and exhibits a Research and Education branch was created within the National Park Service. This bureau outlined a policy of portraying certain phases of the American scene in a correlated story. Laboratories were developed in Berkeley, California; Fort Hunt, Virginia; and Washington, D. C. The leading men in this program were H. C. Bryant, F. W. Miller, W. W. Atwood, F. R. Oastler, A. F. Hall, H. C. Bumpus, and C. P. Russell.

In 1920, Superintendent Horace M. Albright, assisted by J. E. Haynes, organized the naturalist program in Yellowstone. M. P. Skinner was the first Park Naturalist. He was succeeded by Edmund J. Sawyer in 1924. Four years later Dorr G. Yeager assumed the office; in 1932 Dr. C. Max Bauer became Park Naturalist and served until 1946, when David de L. Condon was advanced to the position.[344] All of these men have been nature-wise and public-minded. As time passed two assistants to the Chief Naturalist and thirty-five seasonal Park ranger-naturalists completed this organization. Robert N. McIntyre became Chief Park Naturalist in 1959.

Today Yellowstone’s Naturalist Division stands as the symbol of America’s love for the great out-of-doors. Its philosophy is wise and comprehensive. Its scientists have delved deeply for the facts. Still, there is a spirit of self-abnegation among the personnel. They serve all and sundry in every possible way, and yet they are pledged to the preservation of the natural treasures. Their contribution to protection of park values is shared with that of the ranger staff. The number of public contacts runs into the hundreds of thousands annually. Wise, indeed, is the tourist who avails himself of this free guide service.

The principal points of interest are visited over footpath or by auto caravan. Daily schedules of these activities are posted, and an illustrated lecture is held in an amphitheater each night. Many citizens have expressed their satisfaction with this naturalist service:

He unravelled before our city-wearied eyes the skein of beauty nature has hidden in this great preserve. With skillful phrase he repictured for us the aeons during which the mountains were wrinkling and the cobalt lakes were born. His keen eyes found us mountain sheep ... his wide knowledge compassed the flowers and birds along the way. He knew when and where to take us to see the beaver at work, and where the water ouzel bubbled forth its cascade of song. He answered all our questions with calm courtesy. Around the nightly campfire he brought to us in song and story the romance and exuberance of the west....

The fire of his enthusiasm welded us to the National Park idea and out-of-doors as nothing had ever done. We returned to the east inspired by a new understanding of the greatness of America and the magnificence of its beauty.[345]

In 1928 the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Foundation made a donation to be used by the American Association of Museums in the Park. Under the direction of Dr. Hermon C. Bumpus museums were erected at Old Faithful, Madison, Norris and Fishing Bridge. The main museum at Mammoth was improved and a number of roadside exhibits were established.[346]

Mission 66 was begun by the National Park Service in 1956. It is a conservation program to assure full protection of irreplaceable scenic, scientific and historic treasures and to develop and staff the Parks to permit their wisest possible use for your enjoyment. Completion is scheduled for 1966, the 50th anniversary of the establishment of the National Park Service, hence Mission 66.

Under this program, new roads, bridges, campgrounds and other facilities are being built. A fine new visitor center was opened in 1958 at Canyon Village and a large number of attractive new roadside exhibits and signs interpret the human and natural history of the great natural museum that is Yellowstone.

During the score of years required to develop the naturalist branch, the protective division was not marking time. In 1920 James McBride became the first Chief Ranger. Since then Samuel Tilden Woodring, George F. Baggley, Francis D. LaNoue, Maynard Barrows, Curtis K. Skinner and Otto M. Brown have served. Nelson Murdock became Chief Ranger in 1960. Under their supervision the character of the personnel has been gradually changed. Originally a mountain scout and ex-soldier organization, it is now composed of college graduates. These men divide their time and effort between applying the principles of forest and wild life management with those of public relations. Physically robust, mentally alert, sociable and understanding, they properly exemplify the traditional informality and hospitality of the West.

Of course there have always been a few political appointees present among the seasonal Park rangers. This makes the group quite varied, somewhat in keeping with the universality of the tourists themselves. Many a city lad has had the time of his life in his fleeting role as a “ninety-day wonder.” Still there has always been a restraining influence reaching out from the chief ranger’s office. A young man is not allowed to become too self-conscious over his uniform or badge of authority.

The Superintendent presides over the protective and naturalist divisions and all other units of the National Park Service in Yellowstone. Only four men have held this position since the army withdrew in 1918. C. A. Lindsley was succeeded by Horace M. Albright in 1919. Mr. Albright served for ten years, after which Roger W. Toll took office. Edmund B. Rogers was appointed May 25, 1936, and served until November 1, 1956, when Superintendent Lemuel A. Garrison succeeded him. The superintendent’s office is the nerve center of the Park. From there all activities are co-ordinated. This official is also the liaison man with the National Park Service; he makes all estimates and recommendations; he contends for assistance from cooperating agencies, such as the Civilian Conservation Corps, Emergency Relief Administration, and Public Works Administration.[347] The Public Health Service, the Geological Survey, and the Fish and Wildlife Service each lend cooperation in their special fields. It is also his function to consider many letters of introduction and requests for special favors. He is expected, personally, to welcome numerous delegations and important national and foreign personages. Information and courtesies flow from his presence continuously. He must determine the bounds of concessionaires, hear major complaints, oppose all invasions by mercenary interests, and, if necessary, labor to expand the Park’s boundaries.

Beginning early in the twentieth century there were advocates of an extension southward. Many people wanted to have the cathedral-like Tetons incorporated in the Park. A campaign for a Greater Yellowstone was launched, and in 1918 Representative Mondell introduced a measure (H.R. 11661) providing for their incorporation.[348] However, the matter was delayed, and the passing of time resulted in the establishment of the Grand Teton National Park. A national park may only be created by an act of Congress; whereas an executive order is sufficient for the creation of a national monument or a moderate extension of a park boundary. Through a proclamation issued by President Hoover on October 20, 1932, Yellowstone National Park acquired a triangular strip of 7,600 acres of land, now called the Stevens Creek area. It is located northwest of Gardiner townsite, and it was enlarged to the extent of nearly a thousand acres the next year. In affairs of this character the National Park Service and the Superintendent work in close cooperation with the Secretary of the Interior. Indeed, the superintendency of Yellowstone is one of the ranking positions of its kind in the National Park Service. His final obligation is to be sure that the original objective “for the benefit and enjoyment of the people” is still the chief and ever-constant purpose.

It has been pointed out that the fulfillment of this objective is rather difficult, because various interests and groups have their own ideas concerning the purposes and methods of administering national parks. For example, in Idaho, there are some organizations that seek an Idaho entrance to the Park on Fall River. They point to the fact that distance and time would be appreciably reduced in reaching Old Faithful via this route. Besides, they aver, such an entrance would traverse a beautiful scenic area. These contentions are both valid and understandable. So is the demand for landing strips and airport facilities within the reservation boundaries.

The latter project, it is held, is identical to the position raised by motorists in 1915. National Park officials have met these issues squarely. Director Conrad L. Wirth and his Yellowstone representatives have vetoed both proposals. “Surely,” they reason, “the Park is for the people, but if it is multisected by highways and airways, what will become of the primitive areas?” Sizeable regions are essential for the propagation and preservation of wild life. In addition, they point to the fact that as of this date most people conceive of the parks as havens of relative quiet and rest.

During the travel season of 1959, Yellowstone was host to 1,489,112 visitors. This multitude exceeded the total of all persons entering the Park in the first half century of its existence. Facilitating their enjoyment and at the same time preserving the domain as a pleasuring ground for their descendants requires a good measure of understanding on the part of the public, together with a high degree of understanding and training upon the part of the officials.

Earth tremors are common in the Yellowstone region. The Hayden Survey reported feeling severe shocks near Steamboat Point on Yellowstone Lake in 1871. They named the site “Earthquake Camp.” Other quakes have been reported, mostly of a minor nature. At 11:38 p.m. on August 17, 1959, an earthquake of magnitude 7.1 on the Richter Scale struck the Yellowstone area. The epicenter of the quake was along the western boundary of the Park in the vicinity of Grayling Creek.

The greatest earthquake damage took place in the Madison Canyon about 7 miles below Hebgen Dam and outside Yellowstone. A massive slide of about 80 million tons of earth and rock blocked the canyon and entombed a number of campers along a half-mile stretch of the Madison River. This natural dam has created Earthquake Lake, a feature that will attract attention for years to come.

In Yellowstone National Park dangerous rock slides covered Park roads at several points along the Madison, Firehole, and Gibbon rivers, and at Golden Gate. Tall chimneys toppled from Old Faithful Inn and other Park buildings, and there was structural damage to many roads and buildings.

The hot springs showed a greater change in this one night than had been observed in the entire history of the Park. Close study of the thermal features revealed that most springs had discharged water copiously during the quake and aftershocks, and then ebbed below normal levels. Investigation revealed that at least 298 springs and geysers had erupted the night of the quake, and 160 of these were springs with no previous record of eruption. Other changes occurred slowly. The Fountain Paint Pot did not manifest unusual activity until several days after the quake, but then encroached upon walks and parking areas. Most of the hot springs became turbid, and even cold springs that fed the mountain streams on the west side of the Park discharged an opaque mud which discolored the creeks and rivers.

Equilibrium was gradually restored in the geyser basins. Some of the earthquake changes were permanent, others transitory. All of them make this chapter in the living geology of Yellowstone an intensely interesting one for Park visitors to learn about.

Upon receiving reports about earthquake effects throughout the Park, Superintendent Lon Garrison exclaimed, “The Lord had his arms around us. We had 18,000 people inside Yellowstone that night, and not one person was killed or badly hurt. Think what would have happened if the quake had come during daylight—at Old Faithful Inn, for example, where the chimney fell into the dining room.”

Thus, out of Yellowstone’s development under scouts, soldiers, and rangers, has come invaluable experience for the good of the whole nation. From its humble origin a service has evolved that now administers more than one hundred and seventy-five national park service areas. Perhaps the value of this program toward the enrichment of American life cannot be assessed. However, something of its breadth has been caught and cast in the bronze plaque at the Madison Junction Museum:

Stephen Tyng Mather
July 4, 1867 Jan. 22, 1930

He laid the foundation of the National Park Service. Defining and establishing the policy under which its areas shall be developed and conserved unimpaired for future generations. There will never come an end to the good that he has done.

Yellowstone is one of these irreducible frontiers which should never vanish, but to find a frontier one must first have the spirit of a frontiersman. Therefore within its confines are vast wilderness zones into which people may still go who cherish the elemental conditions of earth and its denizens. Here there may always be a pristine land, reminiscent of the primitive environment of mankind. Here is a temporary refuge for people distraught by the strain and turmoil of modern life. It is becoming increasingly clear that the nation which leads the world in feverish business activity requires playgrounds as well as workshops. If America would maintain its industrial supremacy let her plan not only the conservation of materials but of men.[349] Therefore, let them come to Yellowstone and other national parks and achieve physical, mental, and especially spiritual regeneration for all time to come. In Yellowstone, the National Park Service will be on hand to so direct the experience of the visitors to the end that even from afar and after many years their memories will return again. And, as the deepening twilight seems to bring the earth and the sky together, they may reflect upon a land where white-robed columns of steam ascend from the fissures of geysers long dead, like ghosts revisiting the scenes of their activity.[350]

Such is the desire of all large and generous minds. They are in full agreement with the glowing tribute of the Earl of Dunraven:

All honor then to the United States for having bequeathed as a free gift to man the beauties and curiosities of Wonderland. It is an act worthy of a great nation, and she will have her reward in the praise of the present army of tourists no less than in the thanks of the generations to come.[351]

And so, here is Yellowstone—The Gem of the Mountains. Is she not worthy of the fullest measure of preservation, appreciation, and defense? Surely, the Park is an incomparable heritage in the divine legacy that is America. May her fountains never fail but go dancing eternally along, shedding joy and inspiration upon the hearts of all who seek a certain treasure.

Appendix I
YOUNG MEN CAMPING IN YELLOWSTONE WILDERNESS

An adaptation of Rudyard Kipling’s
“The Feet of the Young Men”
By Merrill D. Beal

Appendix II
THE PROBLEM OF “COLTER’S ROUTE IN 1807”

It may seem unfruitful at this time to attempt a solution of the problem of John Colter’s 1807 route of discovery in Yellowstone. Many people require no proof of anything cited in the records of such great scouts as Jedediah S. Smith, Kit Carson, and John Colter. Their integrity need not be questioned. Still, it is within the province of the historian to sift and test all of the evidence until the truth falls into place as elements in a jigsaw puzzle. Even myths and legends should be examined for any implications and bearing they might have upon a fact. It is in this light that the following discussion of the Colter discovery problem is presented. This case is entirely hypothetical, since no specific reference to his route has been found anywhere among source material, except as it is approximated upon the Map of 1814.

Beyond the known facts of Colter’s journey in 1807, the Map of 1814, and the “Colter’s Hell” legend, there is a complete hiatus, or vacuum. However, the Map of 1814 is certainly a tangible thing; let it tell its own story: It is known that William Clark had a friend in Philadelphia named Nicholas Biddle who arranged for the publication of The Lewis and Clark Journals. In order to properly depict the journey, Mr. Biddle secured the services of a prominent Philadelphia cartographer named Samuel Lewis. Twice in 1810 Clark sent sheets of map material to Mr. Biddle.[352] John Colter reached St. Louis in May, 1810. It is certain that he called upon Clark and gave him information, if not sheets, depicting his famous journey of 1807. This data was undoubtedly sent on to Mr. Biddle, either as Colter drew it or as it was accurately redrawn by Clark. At least one of Colter’s sheets was incorporated in the final Map of 1814.[353] The first, or eastern prairie, side of the Colter plat traced his journey up Pryors Fork, about fifty miles west of Fort Manuel, through Pryors Gap. Then he crossed over to Clarks Fork, which he ascended, probably to Dead Indian Creek. From this creek Colter crossed over a divide to the North Fork Shoshone River where he first smelled sulphur. This he called Stinking Water River, most probably referring to the present De Maris Mineral Springs near Cody, Wyoming.

On Stinking Water River he encountered the “Yep-pe Band of Snake Indians 1000 souls.” This was evidently a clan of the Crow tribe. From these Yep-pe Indians, denizens of both prairie and mountain, he undoubtedly learned of the Yellowstone geysers and other marvels. This accounts for his side trip which brought him back to the Yep-pe camp. It is likely that some of these Indians directed Colter along another route in returning to Manuel’s Fort. Obviously they went down the North Fork Shoshone, or Colter’s Stinking Water River, to its junction with Shoshone River. This, he followed to Gap Creek (now Sage Creek) which he ascended to Pryors Gap.[354] By this alternate route Colter again reached Pryors Fork where he crossed over to return to Fort Manuel.

From this examination it is obvious that the western boundary of Colter’s first map lies east of 110° longitude, and up to that point no difficulty whatever is encountered with either the route or the map. This line undoubtedly defines the west border of Colter’s first sheet. It became a part of the Map of 1814 without change. Hence, it is a correct representation of the “Buffalo Bill country” around Cody, Wyoming. Published in 1814, it could only have been the work of John Colter, because no other white man had visited that area. Because of the accuracy of Colter’s first plat, or east portion of the map, his course to the Yep-pe Indian camp can be followed like tracks in the snow. Just so, the return route east of 110° can be identified as coming down Sunlight Creek and back up Dead Indian Creek to the Yep-pe Indian camp. From there he followed a shorter route, in returning to the eastern edge of the map sheet, that is to say, the head of Pryors Fork.

Thus, it is evident that the eastern courses of Colter’s journey, both going and coming, are accurately depicted on the Map of 1814. East of 110° it is an accurate and authentic mapping of the area, just such a one as an intelligent trapper would make. Whatever is depicted corresponds to actual geography. It is factual, tangible, verifiable, and indisputable.

This part of the map proves that Colter did take an extended journey in a southwesterly direction, but it does not prove that he discovered Yellowstone Park. The dependable part of the map simply accounts for the eastern part of the figure eight which is essential to describe the complete journey.[355] The reliable part leads him only to the southeastern border of Yellowstone Park and brings him back from farther north along its eastern boundary.

The western portion of the dotted line on the Map of 1814 is purely fictitious and encompasses an area far beyond that occupied by Yellowstone Park. Indeed, this part of Colter’s route winds among a labyrinth of geographical unreality.[356] Therefore, Colter’s route, as represented by the western loop of the dotted line, is likewise invalid. Here, then, is the problem of Colter’s discovery: How could the map of his exploration, which necessarily described a figure eight, be at once so authentic in the east and so fictitious in the west? The Yellowstone area of the Map of 1814 is certainly one of organized confusion, but it does not follow that Colter drew that portion of the map as it appears.

Actual geography and common sense prove that a trapper on foot could not possibly have seen both the Arkansas and Platte rivers. Just as surely, geography and common sense attest that in traveling a normal western loop of the figure eight he would have seen precisely what the map does not depict, namely: Upper Yellowstone River, Snake River, Yellowstone Lake, and the thermal areas at Thumb of Lake and near Hayden Valley.

Thus, by elimination, an obvious conclusion evolves, namely that the western loop is not as Colter drew it. Instead of actuality, there is fiction; nothing in this part of the map conforms to reality. That geography only exists upon the Map of 1814. John Colter died in 1813 so he never even saw the route as depicted, to say nothing of traveling along it.