The Project Gutenberg eBook of Modern Copper Smelting, by Donald M. Levy

Preliminary Refining and Casting into Anodes— Electrolytic Refining—Bringing to Pitch, and Casting of Merchant Copper.

The further treatment of the converter metal depends to a large extent upon its composition, and the purpose for which it is intended. The matte-smelting operations on copper ores bring about the elimination of the greater part of the constituents accompanying the copper. The converter-grade matte may, however, in addition to the copper, iron and sulphur, also contain considerable proportions of easily reducible impurities of the ore, possessing a greater tendency to enter the matte than to be oxidised and eliminated in the slag. Such constituents may include gold and silver (practically all concentrated and retained in the cupriferous product), arsenic, antimony, bismuth, selenium and tellurium (retained to very considerable extent), as well as lead, zinc, nickel and cobalt (in much smaller proportions). The amount of these latter impurities ultimately retained in the converter matte depends very largely upon the proportions originally present in the ore, and upon the smelting conditions.

Under the strongly oxidising conditions of the Bessemer process the copper retains but small quantities of impurity, and those which do remain in ordinary converter metal may be broadly divided into two classes [17]—(a) those which are oxidisable with comparative ease, and (b) those which persist in the metal even under oxidising influences, unless treated by special means. The former include iron, sulphur, and zinc; the latter, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, selenium, tellurium, gold, and silver. Keller gives the following figures for the average elimination of the impurities in the converter:—

Of the persistent elements, the retaining of the gold and silver in the converter-copper is a factor of much economic advantage, but the other impurities are curiously just those which are characterised by possessing most injurious effects on copper intended for electrical work—for which purpose most of the material is employed.

The demand for particularly pure metal in electrical and conductivity work therefore usually necessitates a further purification of the converter-copper (unless it be an exceptionally pure brand) and the production of metal specially free from the injurious constituents which persist to a small but sometimes very appreciable extent in the metal under the ordinary oxidising conditions. The presence of silver and gold in the copper may afford in many instances sufficiently good reason for a separating process independently of the market for the pure copper itself.

In modern practice, electrolytic methods are almost universally employed for the purification of the crude copper. By this means the large demands of the present day can be conveniently met, and the copper be obtained in a condition of remarkable purity. The frequent presence of gold and silver in the metal, and the convenience and completeness with which they are separated on electrolytic treatment of the copper are particularly advantageous features which recommend the adoption of electro-refining, and may in some cases be the reason for this procedure even though the metal might otherwise be already quite up to specification for electrical service. In the large majority of cases, these bullion-values constitute a welcome and independent bye-product, the returns from which may be set against the expenses of the refining operations on the copper, which might, in any case, be necessary.

Under the present industrial conditions, the electrolytic refineries are located at centres often at very considerable distance from the smelters. Situations for the refineries are chosen where the local conditions as regards power supply, technical resources, and particularly proximity to markets and distributing centres, allow of the operations being conducted under the most advantageous circumstances, and it is customary for smelters situated in the remoter mining districts to ship the crude copper to these custom refineries, instead of conducting the process themselves. At Anaconda, the well-equipped electrolytic refineries have been closed down, and the anode metal shipped to the Eastern refineries for treatment.

Preliminary Refining of Converter Copper and Casting into Anodes.—For modern electro-refining practice, the crude metal must be prepared into anodes, which are usually in the form of plates about 2 feet 6 inches × 3 feet by 2 inches thick. It is found that the metal as produced in the converters, on being cast into such plates, does not as a rule yield anodes which work satisfactorily in the tanks. This is largely owing to the impure and crude condition of the metal, which results in the production of plates which are spongy, coarse, and exceedingly rough and uneven on the surface. In consequence the direct employment of such metal would occasion irregularity and difficulties in the operation of the tanks, giving rise to short circuits, uneven wear, breaking off in large pieces, and similar troubles. Furthermore, the tank liquors and slimes become badly contaminated if large quantities of impurity be present in the anodes, and the deposition of good clean metal is thus greatly interfered with. All these reasons render it advisable that the converter-copper should, as a rule, undergo a preliminary furnace treatment before being cast into anodes.

The Anaconda practice is representative of the manner in which these preliminary refining and casting operations are conducted, except that the enormous scale and organisation of the operations are practically unique. The principles involved and the general method of operation are in all essentials those of the old Welsh furnace-refining process.

The Furnace.—The finished metal from the converters is teemed into ladles, and from these is poured directly into one of three casting furnaces. Two of the furnaces are in constant use, one of them engaged in refining, one being filled, and one in reserve or repair. Two of the furnaces are 14 feet × 22 feet 8 inches hearth dimensions, with a capacity of 95 tons; the third has a 14 feet × 28 feet hearth, and a capacity of 110 tons—the fire-boxes being 5 feet 6 inches × 7 feet. The furnace bottom is constructed of the local silica brick (which is claimed to be the finest in the world) laid down in four beds, the three lower being each 12 inches thick, whilst the working bed is constructed of 20-inch bricks; brick being found to be better than sand in this class of work. The bottom is curved to a depth of 2 feet. These furnaces are, in consequence of their different function, constructed on somewhat different principles to the reverberatory smelting furnaces.

Owing to the high conductivity of copper, and to the fact that the functions of the furnace are either largely as a medium for simple fusion or as a receptacle for molten metal, and further, that but little slag is produced, that no settling and separation of the fluid materials are required, and that there is no danger of dusting-losses, the furnace may conveniently be built with a deep hearth which need not be of very considerable length. The main requirements are refractoriness of the building materials, particularly careful construction so as to avoid breakouts, and very strong bracing indeed on account of the deep and heavy bath of material which is carried on the furnace hearth.

Operations—(a) Oxidation Stage.—The furnace is loosely filled with scrap copper which has accumulated round the works (8 to 12 tons), and converter metal (of composition say about 98·3 per cent. copper) is then poured in at the side door from ladles bringing it in quantities of about 5 tons at a time, as teemed from the converters. When the furnace is about half-filled, a blast of air at 90 lbs. pressure is injected through the metal by means of iron pipes, which at this stage just dip below the surface. These pipes are gradually eaten away by oxidation and slagging action, but as the end wears down, the pipe is pushed further in. The function of this air blast is to supply oxygen for the purpose of acting upon the small quantities of oxidisable impurity which remain in the metal after bessemerising, and which consist chiefly of iron and sulphur, in addition to the small quantities of metalloids. The oxygen partly acts directly on these constituents, but as already indicated, the scouring action is to a great extent performed by copper oxide which is produced and which is itself a powerful oxidising agent. The iron appears to be one of the first elements to be removed, and then a little sulphur, but this is chiefly eliminated after the iron has been oxidised. The interaction between the copper oxide and the sulphides liberates metallic copper and yields SO₂, which bubbles up through the metal and gives to it an appearance of “boiling,” by which name this stage is known. Too rapid an oxidation during the early stages is dangerous if much sulphur be present, owing to the evolution of sulphur-dioxide assuming a degree of explosive vigour. Up to this point, the oxygen has been utilised in removing iron, sulphur, etc., which are eliminated as oxides, so that but little of the oxygen is retained in the metal, but after the boiling stage is passed, oxygen is actually absorbed, the copper now becoming oxidised, and the oxygen contents of the metal rapidly increase. As in the analogous instance of steel bessemerising, it appears essential to introduce some excess of oxygen into the metal in order to ensure the complete removal of the oxidisable impurities, so in copper-refining, an excess which amounts to about 0·7 per cent. of oxygen (equivalent to about 6 per cent. of Cu₂O) must be introduced.

In the refining practice as conducted by the Welsh process, much of this aëration took place during the slow melting down of the crude blister copper, and subsequently during the flapping operations with the rabble; but the use of the air-blast hastens this oxidation considerably, especially as the metal is now often directly poured into the furnace in a molten condition, so that oxidation during melting is not possible. It is essential to defer this final oxidation and elimination until it can be conducted at the refining furnaces rather than to attempt it in the converter, since the refining furnace allows of the operation being performed much more gradually and under better control, whereas if conducted in the converter, the necessarily vigorous action would occasion unduly heavy losses of copper in the slag and probably excessive oxidation of the metal.

During the aëration, the furnace contents are continually added to, by additional ladles-full of metal, and usually by the time the furnace is filled the air-blast has oxidised most of the impurities from the metal. These have entered the slag, and the copper has become “dry,” owing to the necessary super-aëration. If this stage has not been reached, the sample often shows “sprouting” (also known as “spewing” or “throwing a worm”), which is caused by the escape of SO₂, and indicates that all the sulphur has not been eliminated. In that case the blowing is continued until small samples ladled out from the bath exhibit the characteristics of dry copper, viz.: the depression down the middle line of the ingot, brittleness of the metal, and a purplish brick-like fracture.

(b) Poling and Bringing to Pitch.—The oxidation having proceeded to the required stage, the highly cupriferous slag is skimmed off, after being first thickened with ashes from the fire-grate, and the poling of the metal is then commenced. This operation is conducted by immersing poles of timber, three to six at a time, in the metal, holding them well under the surface and pushing them further in as the ends burn away. It is essential that the timber should be green and not dry, and preferably it should be hard wood, such as birch, beech, or oak. The poles are usually as long as possible, and are from 6 to 8 inches thick at the butt end. The function of the wood, particularly during the early stages is, to a great extent, mechanical, and any chemical changes effected are by indirect action.

The poling operation really consists of two stages, the first of which is the final elimination of SO₂ retained by the metal, and the last, the actual reduction of the excess oxide and the “bringing of the metal to pitch.”

The green timber, when inserted into the copper, liberates large amounts of moisture and reducing gases which agitate the bath considerably and “shake” the gas out of the metal more or less mechanically, replacing, at the same time, some SO₂ by CO and hydrocarbons which copper possesses the power of absorbing. When the SO₂ has been satisfactorily eliminated, the reduction stage is arrived at, and this is conducted in a manner similar to the familiar poling operation of the Welsh process. The surface of the bath is completely covered over with a layer of coke, anthracite, or charcoal, and more poles are inserted. The exact mechanism of the operation has not yet been definitely traced, but the action of the wood at this stage is partly of a mechanical and partly of a chemical nature. The reducing gases liberated by the charring and destructive distillation of the wood have themselves a reducing action on the oxides which are dissolved in the dry copper, but an important feature of the action of these gases is the agitation and splashing which they occasion, thus bringing the molten metal into close and vigorous contact with the layer of reducing carbonaceous material maintained upon the surface of the bath.

Poles are inserted usually two or three at a time, and samples are constantly taken and examined for surface indications and for fracture. This preliminary refining operation usually has for its chief object the preparation of a fairly pure metal which will yield a sound, clean, and even anode casting, and which is not required at this stage to pass the rigid mechanical tests essential for the market product. In this case it is therefore usual to carry the poling operation only to such a degree that the samples ladled out and cast into small ingots solidify with the even, smooth surface desired and which is characteristic of “tough-pitch copper”—irrespective of any special mechanical properties of the metal. If the test is satisfactory, the metal is ready for casting.

The poling occupies some hours, and usually from 40 to 50 poles of wood are used up before the metal is in a suitable condition for casting. During these operations the coal fire in the grate is manipulated in a manner best suited to the various stages of the process; there may thus be an oxidising flame during the early part of the refining, but the flame must be of a reducing character whilst poling is in progress.

Casting.—Until comparatively recent years, the size of the refining furnace has been necessarily limited to small dimensions, owing to the difficulty in emptying the furnace of large charges. The practice, as conducted hitherto, has been based on the familiar method of the old Welsh process, viz., that of ladling out the metal by small hand ladles. This involves so much hand labour, and requires such a long period of time for its operation as to make practically impossible any attempt to deal with large quantities of metal, or to lead to any considerable increase in furnace capacity. The chief difficulties to be overcome when operating on large charges of copper by this hand-lading method are those of maintaining the metal at the correct pitch during the lengthy period of ladling; whilst the large amount of time during which the finished copper has to remain within prevents the furnace being used for its chief purpose, that of refining more metal.

The method of hand ladling was employed for so many years on account of the difficulties of controlling the stream of metal and of tapping the furnace in the usual way—i.e., through a tap-hole at the lowest point of the bath. These difficulties were due to the very high working temperatures, to the great weight of metal behind the stream, which forced it out under great pressure, and to the high melting point, conductivity, and tendency to chill of the copper, which was apt to cause setting of metal in the tap-hole, and led to the latter becoming rapidly closed up and useless. Regulation of the stream of metal to a gentle flow was impossible under such conditions.

With the introduction of casting machines by Walker, and the improvements in the methods of tapping by the adoption of the vertical tapping-slot, these difficulties have been removed, and the casting of 100 tons of metal from one of the modern large casting furnaces presents, to experienced workers, little practical difficulty.

The modern casting machine brings a series of moulds continually under the supply of metal which issues from a large ladle fed continuously from the tapping-slot of the furnace.

The method of tapping now used is to allow the copper to gently run out of the furnace, by gradually lowering the level of a temporary retaining wall which is constructed in a narrow vertical slot in the tapping side of the furnace.

On tilting the ladle, the metal flows gently and without splashing through a three-hole grid in the front—which keeps back slag or cinders—and runs into the mould, which is rapidly filled. In order to prevent the metal overflowing in the mould, and also to rapidly cool that portion which forms the lugs of the anode-plate, a hollow water-cooled block 2 feet 6 inches long and of 6 inches square section, situated opposite the ladle, is brought forward hydraulically into such a position that it rests on the mould just against the edge of the lugs.

At many smelters the circular form of anode casting machine introduced by A. L. Walker is employed. This apparatus consists of a horizontal wheel which can be rotated slowly, carrying a series of arms at the end of which the moulds are supported, so that they form a broken ring. By the rotation of the machine, one mould after another can be brought under the ladle and filled. The moulds are pivoted, so as to allow of tilting, and when the metal has set, the ingot is thus dropped into a cold water bosh, whence it is carried to the yards by a conveyor. At Anaconda, the casting machine consists of a series of moulds carried on a platform conveyor which is operated hydraulically—the moulds are attached by bolting them on to the belt through lugs fixed underneath. The moulds are constructed of 1 inch cast-iron, and allow of the production of anode ingots 2 feet 6 inches × 3 feet by 2 inches thick, provided with lugs at the corners of one end for the purpose of supporting the plates in the tanks.

Each mould holds about 560 lbs. of metal, and when the anode has been cast, the ladle is dropped back into position and the mould is moved forward by means of the conveyor belt. After traversing a distance equal to three times its own length, the ingot becomes fairly solid, and at a point corresponding to this position the conveyor base inclines slightly upwards. The cake is sprayed gently during its passage over a distance of about 8 feet, the conveyor belt then passes over a pulley-wheel, and when in a vertical position, the anode is forced out of the mould by a crowbar and falls into a water bosh, from which it is carried by another conveyor on to a platform. Here it is wheeled to stacks, examined for flaws, and weighed. Sample anodes are placed on one side, and the others are packed for shipment to the Eastern refineries.

The furnace deals with one charge (usually of 100 tons, but occasionally much more) per eight-hour shift, and the casting machine yields 25 tons of anodes per hour.

Samples weighing from 4 to 6 ozs. are taken three times per shift from the stream of copper running into the moulds, by batting the metal into water with a wooden paddle. This method checks very well with drillings taken from the anode plates, the chief discrepancy feared having been with respect to silver contents, owing to the tendency of this metal to segregate. The assay of the anode metal at Anaconda averages copper 99·3 per cent., silver 80 ozs. per ton, and gold 0·5 oz. per ton.

Electro-Refining.—Electrolytic refining was introduced on a commercial scale by Elkington at Pembray in 1865, and with the general adoption of the dynamo for the production of power, dating from about 1870, the process was greatly developed. Most of the copper now placed on the market has passed through the electrolytic refinery.

System of Working.—The method of arranging the electrodes in the depositing tanks which is usually adopted at the great refineries at the present day, is that known as the parallel or multiple system.

In this method of working, the anodes are all connected to one pole of the circuit, and the cathodes, situated between them, are all connected to the other. In this way, each tank comprises in reality one large anode and one large cathode, and the voltage as measured between any two neighbouring electrodes will be the same. The system thus allows of currents at low voltage being employed, since the voltage is a factor of the number of electrodes in series, and in consequence danger of short circuiting is lessened. This allows of plates being placed closer together in the tank, with less danger from this source of trouble.

A large number of tanks are employed at the refineries, and they are usually arranged in series, the anode plates of one vat being connected to the cathode plates of the neighbouring one, the current thus passing from one vat to the other through the entire system.

Various other methods of arranging the electrodes have been favoured from time to time, and of these the series-system is the most important, this being still in use at several large refineries, though it has been generally superseded by the multiple method.

The plan underlying the series method was that of avoiding the trouble and expense of preparing and working with the special cathode sheets of pure copper as are necessitated by the multiple system. In the series-method, each anode was made to serve as a depositing surface for the pure cathode copper produced by the operation, so that as impure anode copper was dissolved away on one side of the “anode”-plate, pure copper was gradually deposited upon the other side. This system appeared, therefore, to have several marked advantages to recommend it, but in practical operation many difficulties in working and several serious disadvantages were encountered. The chief points in favour of the series-system are—

(a) Smaller first cost of the installation, particularly in the matter of electrical connections, since the multiple system requires heavy leads running along each side of the tank, as well as close attention to the providing of good contacts, in order to connect all the anodes and all the cathodes together with a minimum of current leakage. In the series-method, the plates are readily connected one to the other.

(b) The great saving of the cost of preparation and arranging for specially pure cathode plates, this constituting a very important factor in the costs of the multiple process.

On the other hand, the disadvantages of the system, except under special conditions, are very serious.

(a) More scrap is produced and requires re-treating, owing to the difficulty of separating the new deposit from the remaining portions of old anode, which often adhere very firmly.

(b) Higher voltage through the tanks is required, owing to the large number of electrodes in series in the bath. Hence the danger of current-leakage and short circuiting is greatly increased, especially when impure anodes are used, since they tend to produce conducting layers of mud on the bottom of the vat.

(c) The anode plates have to be made particularly smooth and even on the surface, since in order to lessen the voltage required, the plates are brought as close together as possible, in consequence of which, any excrescences upon the surface greatly increase the danger of short circuiting. Preliminary furnace-refining and special straightening of the anodes are therefore essential in connection with the series method.

(d) Special tanks are required, as the protecting lead liner cannot be employed, since the danger of current-leakage through it is increased, owing to the higher voltages required. Hence special acid-resisting material, such as slate, is necessary, the expense of which is considerable.

(e) The cost of stripping the cathodes is high, and the operation is often difficult.

(f) The cost of maintaining the plant is greater.

It is, however, general to carry out this preliminary refining, which yields sounder anodes, keeps the electrolyte purer, and promotes the more regular working of the electrodes and electrolyte—although some smelters still cast the anodes direct from converter metal.

Outline of the Process.—The electro-refining industry is a highly specialised one, and the methods of putting the comparatively simple underlying principles into practical operation have assumed great complexity and diversity in detail, concerning which Ulke has collected and published much valuable information.

The following details have more particular reference to the multiple system of working, as being the most representative of the electro-refining methods in general use.

The outlines of the process constitute the passing of direct electric current through tanks containing acidified solutions of copper sulphate, employing plates of crude copper as anodes, and depositing pure metal upon cathode-plates of specially-refined thin sheets of pure copper. The precious metals and most of the impurities of the anode metal are liberated as small insoluble particles which gradually settle to the bottom of the tanks in the form of mud, soluble constituents, such as iron and zinc, first passing into solution.

General Conditions—Anodes.—The usual dimensions of the anode-plates are 3 feet high by 2 feet 6 inches wide and about 2 inches thick; they are generally cast with lugs, so as to allow of suspension in the tanks. The anode metal is usually brought by a preparatory operation, to as high a state of purity as is economically practicable—

(a) The necessity for the employment of solid and even anodes has already been indicated; it allows of closer suspension of the electrodes, lessens the liability of sprouting and unevenness on the deposits and the irregular wear and breaking up of the anode-plates before they are sufficiently worn away.

(b) The more free the metal is from iron, sulphur, zinc, nickel, etc., the purer remains the electrolyte, since these elements pass into solution at a greater speed than does the copper itself, and, gradually concentrating in the tank liquors, render them more and more impure—the purity of the metal deposited at the cathode being in consequence decreased. The preliminary refining and bringing up to pitch of the metal before casting into anodes, as already described, thus has for its object the preparation of electrodes in a suitable mechanical as well as chemical condition. The copper content is rarely less than 98 per cent. and is often more than 99 per cent. The gold and silver contents are not affected by this preliminary treatment, nor are, to any great extent, the proportions of arsenic, antimony, bismuth, etc.

The size of the anode-plate varies somewhat at different refineries, the usual standard dimensions being indicated above; the size depends to a large extent upon the facilities for handling the electrodes and on the circuit system operated. There is a tendency at several works possessing suitable facilities, to increase the size of the electrodes.

The Cathodes.—The copper is deposited from the electrolyte upon cathode sheets, which are usually thin plates of pure copper corresponding in size to the anodes. As these sheets cannot be conveniently provided with suitable lugs for suspension, they are usually made of somewhat greater length than the anodes, so as to allow of bending over the cross-conductors; otherwise they are furnished with metallic clips for attachment to these bars.

These cathode sheets are prepared by depositing layers of pure metal upon plates of refined copper of suitable surface dimensions and of about ¼ inch thickness. Each side of these plates, which are specially smoothed, is first slightly oiled so as to allow of the subsequent convenient stripping of the sheet when made, and it is then well coated with graphite in order to present a conducting surface on which deposition can proceed. The cathode-sheets are deposited either in the regular tanks of the refinery or in vats specially devoted to the purpose, using in that case, pure electrolyte, and working in the usual manner. On attaining a thickness of about ¹⁄₂₅ inch, the sheet is stripped off, cleaned and clipped ready for use as a cathode.

The Electrolyte.—The electrolyte is essentially an acid solution of copper sulphate. The average proportions are from 15 to 20 per cent. of copper sulphate crystals, and from 5 to 10 per cent. of sulphuric acid—the usual density of the solution ranging from 1·12 to 1·25. The liquid under ordinary conditions of working, remains reasonably pure for a considerable time. It tends, however, to decrease in acidity and to increase in copper contents, partly owing to the presence of cuprous oxide in the metal, which passes into solution independently of the indirect transference of metallic copper from anode to cathode. The composition of the tank liquors must, therefore, be frequently checked. The gold and silver values do not pass into solution under ordinary working conditions, and the addition of a small quantity of common-salt or of hydrochloric acid to the vat effectually prevents any silver from remaining in solution in the liquors.

A considerable proportion of the arsenic in the tough-pitch anode-copper, existing as arsenate, is deposited with the mud residues, it being insoluble and non-conducting. Arsenic in a reduced condition is, however, soluble, and may gradually concentrate in the liquors and contaminate the cathode copper, unless suitable precautions are taken. Some of the reduced arsenic, moreover, tends to produce a slimy arsenite of copper, which, though insoluble, exists in a colloidal non-settling form. Addition of ammonium sulphate to the electrolyte prevents this formation, whilst combined aëration and heating promote the precipitation of arsenic as insoluble arsenates which settle with the tank slimes.

Some of the antimony and bismuth tend to first pass into solution, but for the most part they are precipitated as insoluble basic salts. Under suitable conditions with respect to the acidity and copper contents of the electrolyte, there is little tendency for deposition of these impurities with the copper, but deviation from the correct composition is liable to cause contamination of the deposited metal. These impurities, when in solution, tend to be oxidised by aëration, and this operation greatly encourages their precipitation with the mud.

Iron readily dissolves in the electrolyte, forming soluble ferrous sulphate which tends to gradually accumulate in the solution. This contamination spoils the quality of the deposited metal, and interferes with the process of deposition, decreasing the conductivity of the bath and thus necessitating higher voltage. Aëration of the solution, especially when warmed, leads to the formation of basic ferric sulphates which are insoluble, and which therefore accumulate at the bottom of the tank.

Selenium and tellurium, which when present most probably exist as insoluble selenides and tellurides of copper or silver, are also precipitated, and thus do not find their way into the deposited metal.

The copper itself is deposited from the electrolyte on to the cathode-sheets by the action of the current, whilst at the anodes, the metal passes into solution, and the other constituents are either dissolved or precipitated. It follows that in an undisturbed solution, the liquid near to the cathode becomes gradually impoverished in copper, resulting in a decrease in the rate of deposition and necessitating greater electrical pressure, whilst in the neighbourhood of the anode, the liquor is proportionately stronger in copper and less acid in character. Should these conditions continue to any great extent, the working of the bath is seriously interfered with, since diffusion proceeds too slowly for uniformity to be restored, and in order to secure uniform composition of the electrolyte, it must be maintained in gentle motion by some system of circulation. This agitation and mixing is assisted by the aëration of the bath for the purpose of hastening the oxidation and precipitation of several of the impurities—this being effected by blowing through the liquid a gentle supply of air.

Temperature.—The electrical resistance of the solution decreases as the temperature rises, and in practice the bath is maintained at a uniform temperature of 45° to 50° C. By this means a useful increase in conductivity is obtained, the strength of the deposited copper being at the same time greatly augmented.

Electrical Conditions.—The electrical factors which mainly control the working of the electrolytic process are those of—

(a) Current Density.—The quantity of metal deposited from an electrolyte is proportional to the current which passes, and to the electro-chemical equivalent of the particular metal. Thus a current of one ampere will deposit from copper sulphate solution, 1·1832 grammes of copper per hour, and the total quantity deposited in any given time is determined by the product of the current, the time, and this electro-chemical equivalent (which is determined experimentally).

In practical operation, a factor which is amongst the most important of those governing the working of a plant, is the current density, or current per unit of area of depositing surface, since from this factor the rate of deposition upon the cathode plates is determined, and from it the power requirements, accommodation, etc., for the plant are fixed. The current density is subject to wide variation, but, as a general rule, it ranges from 8 to 18 amperes per square foot of plate-area. Its value is largely dependent upon the speed of working, the cost of power, and the composition of the anode metal, the electrolyte and the desired product, etc.

In general, high current-density possesses many advantages, resulting from the fact that it occasions a more rapid deposition. It causes a proportionately greater output, consequently the stock of metal held back in the tanks is reduced, and hence there is less capital locked up in the form of metal undergoing treatment, and less plant and accommodation are required for the same output.

The current density permissible is, however, limited by the composition of the electrodes and the solution. High current-density causes rapid dissolution of the anodes, and if the plates are not particularly free from impurity, the electrolyte rapidly becomes contaminated, since its dissolving power on the impurities becomes greater with increased electrolytic action, and this affords less opportunity for the precipitation and settling of the injurious constituents. In consequence, the cathode copper is contaminated through this mechanical inclusion of impurities, whilst electro-deposition of some of these materials may also be encouraged. The presence of much silver in the anodes causes the rapid breaking-up of the plates, especially if the current density be high, and thus the separation of the values in the slimes is not so efficiently managed. With high values in the anode copper, it is necessary to reduce the current density to 8 or 10 amperes per square foot, whereas with purer metal a density of as much as 16 to 20 may be conveniently employed.

(b) Voltage.—Electrical pressure is required in order to force the depositing current through the electrolyte against the resistances in the circuit. The voltage required depends upon the current density, the composition and temperature of the electrolyte, the composition of the anodes, and also upon the general conditions of working. These being constant, the voltage necessary is largely a factor of the number of electrodes in series in the tank and of the distance apart of the plates. Under ordinary circumstances this voltage varies from 0·1 to about 0·3 volt. High voltage is to be avoided, owing to the danger of short-circuiting, especially in cases where the accumulation of mud in the tanks, or the impregnation of metallic salts in the tank walls, or the growth of excrescences upon the plates, lead to the passage of the current through these conductors rather than through the electrolyte solution itself. Short circuiting naturally diminishes the output of the plant.

These electrical factors which form the basis of the power requirements of the refinery, call for careful observation during the progress of the operations in order to ensure successful working and a high efficiency of the plant.

The current from the dynamos is brought by heavy leads and is distributed through the sets of tanks in the manner best suited to the installation. At one of the newer works, dynamos producing about 6,000 amperes at 120 to 150 volts, supply sufficient current to operate a set of 400 vats working on the lines just indicated.

Leads run along each side of the tank, the current being conveyed to all the anodes at once by resting one lug of each plate upon the lead which runs along one side of the tank, carefully insulating the other lug from the conductor situated at the opposite side, this being used for connecting up the cathodes. The cathode-sheets are suspended from metallic cross-bars, which rest upon their own conducting lead, and are carefully insulated from the anode lead at the other side. The solutions are heated by means of steam coils.

Distribution of the Electrolyte.—The necessary circulation of the electrolyte is effected as much as possible by the natural action of gravity. The tanks of the top row in the depositing-house receive a constant supply of fresh solution from upper distributing vats, whilst old electrolyte is drawn off from near the bottom of the tanks, and flows over to those on the next and lower level. Fresh solution thus enters at the top of the tank, old solution is drawn off from below, and thus a uniform density and composition is maintained. From the tanks situated at the lowest level, the solution passes to a well, and from there is pumped up to the store-tanks or, when necessary, to the purifying tanks; air-pressure pumps being often employed for this work.

Iron,	99	per cent.
Sulphur,	99	"
Zinc,	99	"
Cobalt,	99	"
Bismuth,	97	"
Lead,	96	"
Arsenic,	81	"
Antimony,	71	"
Selenium,	47	"
Tellurium,	40	"
Nickel,	37	"

LECTURE IX. The Purification and Refining of Crude Copper.

LECTURE IX.
The Purification and Refining of Crude Copper.