879.  Grosse, Anf d. Kunst, p. 218; Donovan, Lyre to Muse, pp. 91, 127 ff.; Jacobowski, Anfänge d. Poesie, p. 127. This author’s discussion of circle and straight line, as of women and of men in the dance, and of other formations, is a bit fanciful although interesting and suggestive. See, too, Donovan on the ring of folk (choral) about a centre of interest,—altar or the like. Work quoted, p. 204.

880.  The development of the dance into different kinds of poetry is foreshadowed by many of the older writers, although the first really comparative treatment of the subject must be assigned to A. W. Schlegel in the lectures at Berlin a century ago. Herder has some valuable remarks on the subject in his early essay Vom Geist der ebräischen Poesie, following, of course, many hints of Lowth. Two hundred years ago, Burette, a really learned writer, drew up his “Mémoire pour servir à l’Histoire de la Danse des Anciens,” published in the Mém., Acad. of Inscript., etc., I. 93 ff., Paris, 1717. Movement and imitation caused the dance, which is “nearly as old as man,” and sprang from joy. Cadence is the mainspring; avoid, he says, Lucian’s prattle about the stars. Wedding, festival, vintage, harvest,—look to these, says Burette, in quite modern spirit, for the origins of the dance. He traces metres to the rhythm of songs sung by the dancers. Another article of this writer investigates ball-playing, often combined with dance and song. Another writer on the dance was John Spencer, D.D., master of Corpus Christi College (1630-1693), the founder of the science of comparative religions; his “Dissertatio de Saltandi Ritu,” is printed in the Thesaurus Antiquitat. Sacrar. complectens selectissima clarissimorum Virorum Opuscula in quibus Veterum Hebraeorum Mores, Leges, etc., illustrantur, Vol. XXXII., Venet., 1767. Spencer studies the dance of the Hebrews, and his references are valuable; he is comparative, and uses dances of modern Turks to illustrate his subject. Hebrews got some of their festal dances from heathen,—the saltationes promiscuas; for erotic dances he thinks to have been early and everywhere. For a man of his date, he concludes very boldly “probabilius est, sacras choreas agendi morem, ex antiquissimo gentium usu primitus oriundum,” and so came to the Hebrews. The festal dances, where Jews bore about branches and sang a choral full of repetitions and with a constant refrain, he compares with pagan affairs of the sort; the pæan is compared with refrains like Hallel and Hosannah. In fine, this is sharp, clear, comparative work, and good reading still. From Joannis Meursi Orchestra sive de Saltationibus Veterum ... Lugd. Batav., 1618, not much is to be learned except a list (alphabetical) of the old dances, with references to the classic passages. Most of the articles are short, but the Pyrrhic Dance has twelve pages. An early essay on dancing, with considerable scope for its time, is inserted in Elyot’s Governour, edited by Croft, London, 1880, from the edition of 1531, I. 202 ff. Elyot seems to be the first Englishman who wrote about the art.

881.  See above, p. 128.

882.  Essai Comparatif sur l’Origine et l’Histoire des Rythmes, Paris, 1889.

883.  Even this may be questioned in a literal sense. “Formen,” says Usener, Altgriechischer Versbau, p. 111, “werden nicht geschaffen, sondern sie entstehen und wachsen. Der schöpferische Künstler erzeugt sie nicht, sondern bildet das Ueberkommene veredelnd um.” He is speaking of the popular four-accent verse found in so many languages.

884.  L’Esthétique du Mouvement, Paris, 1889, Cap. iv. See pp. 54, 65.

885.  In the First Principles.

886.  Essai, pp. 102, 104.

887.  Mélusine, I. 1 ff. See, too, Poésie du Moyen Age, pp. 77, 89.

888.  Zeitschr. f. Völkerpsychol., XVII. 113 ff.

889.  Kalewala, p. 38.

890.  Nordboernes Aandsliv, II. 437 ff.

891.  The refrain of two lines, he thinks, was added to the two-line stanza of narrative ballads; and so resulted the common ballad stanza. This is denied by Steenstrup.

892.  “Proved” by that old primitive-Aryan process now something discredited: danz is an imported word (meaning both song and dance). See Vigfusson’s Icelandic Dictionary, s.v. More formidable, but far from final, is the silence of the sagas.

893.  A similar denial, not only of the original character of recorded ballads, but of the ballad habit itself, is made for Denmark by Professor G. Storm in his otherwise valuable book, Sagnkredsene om Karl den Store og Didrik af Bern hos de nordiske Folk, Kristiania, 1874, pp. 174 f.

894.  See below on the schnaderhüpfl and stev.

895.  Comparetti, Kalewala, 1892. pp. 3, 264 ff. The very name of the Finnish song is probably borrowed; but its original and native character is successfully defended by Comparetti, pp. 37, 272, against the attempt of Ahlqvist to prove alliteration in Finnish verse a loan from the Scandinavians.

896.  Set forth in Tarde’s Les Lois de l’Imitation, Paris, 1890; but the best recent summary of his views is Les Lois Sociales, Paris, 1898. Special problems of the crowd as imitative, dangerous, weak, are treated in his Essais et Mélanges Sociologiques, Lyon-Paris, 1895. See also “Les deux Éléments de la Sociologie,” in Études de Psychologie Sociale, Paris, 1898, an address delivered in 1894 before the first international Congress of Sociology.

897.  Les Lois de l’Imitation, p. 279. So p. 48,—“A l’origine un anthropoïde a imaginé ... les rudiments d’un langage.”

898.  Of the Origin and Progress of Language, I. 318 ff.

899.  He concedes that a different relation exists when two are working together at the same thing (Lois Soc., p. 129); although here are “model and copy,” suggestion at least.

900.  Ibid., p. 159.

901.  He sees light ahead for a world now hung in Schopenhauer-black; the infinitesimal shall cheer us. Ibid., pp. 87, 105, 110.

902.  Lois Sociales, pp. 40 f. This passage will repay close attention.

903.  Critique Scientifique, pp. 191 ff. Carstanjen made a fierce attack on the milieu in art, and, by implication, in literature: Vierteljahrsschrift f. wissenschaftl. Philosophie, XX. (1896), 1 ff., 143 ff. He explains the art of the renaissance by the artists of that time, and not by their environment. For a fine defence of the milieu, however, see the late M. Texte’s book on Jean-Jacques Rousseau et les Origines du Cosmopolitisme Littéraire, pp. xvii. ff.

904.  Outlines of Sociology, trans. F. W. Moore for the Amer. Acad. Pol. and Soc. Sci., June, 1899, pp. 45, 88. See the translator’s abstract, p. 7.

905.  Die Philosophie der Geschichte als Sociologie, Leipzig, 1897, I. 183, 213 f.

906.  Principles of Sociology, New York, 1896.

907.  “Ueber Ziele und Wege der Völkerpsychologie,” in Philosophische Studien, 1888, IV. 1 ff., particularly pp. 11 ff. and 17.

908.  In his Völkerpsychologie (Vol. I., Leipzig, 1900, has appeared), he undertakes to study the making of these three products, which he calls a gemeinsames Erzeugniss. See pp. 4, 6, 24 f. A sensible plea for the volksseele, “which need not have any mystical connotation,” was made by Gustav Freytag in the introduction to his Bilder aus der deutschen Vergangenheit, I. 13 ff.

909.   Psychologie des Foules; and in English translation, The Crowd.

910.  “Das Wesen des Gesammtgeistes,” Studien und Aufsätze, pp. 504 ff.

911.  Significant is the change from Völkerpsychologie to Volkskunde. The new journal is edited by Professor Weinhold, and began in 1891.

912.  In Paul’s Grundriss der Philologie, II. i., 512 ff. See also Ten Brink’s Beowulf, pp. 105 f.

913.  Débute. See Lois de l’Imit., p. 233. He is arguing against Spencer’s doctrine of the development of the arts, and implies the same “high initial source” for music, architecture, and the rest.

914.  “Enfin ce triple poésie découle de trois grandes sources, la Bible, Homère, Shakspeare.”

915.  Lois Sociales, p. 49.

916.  The abstract question is foreign to the present purpose; but it may be urged that one is wise to take neither the extreme position of Buckle, Gumplowicz, and Bourdeau,—who said that if Napoleon had been shot at Toulon, Hoche, or Kleber, or some one, would have done what Napoleon did,—nor yet the equally extreme stand of Tarde and his school. Some sensible remarks on the whole matter may be found in Bernheim’s Lehrbuch d. historischen Methode, pp. 513 ff. of the second edition, Leipzig, 1894.

917.  See Lloyd Morgan, Habit and Instinct, Chap. II. Solitary chicks hatched in an incubator can be heard chirping, all in the same way, before they break the shell, and with no chance of imitation in the case. Weismann, “Gedanken über Musik,” Rundschau, LXI. (1889), 63, remarks that a young finch brought up alone will sing the song of its kind, “but never so beautifully as when a good singer is put with him as teacher.” The concession is enough.

918.  Morgan, work quoted, p. 90. Even Mr. Witchell, for whom the song of birds is traditional, grants that call-notes, alarm-notes, and all such utterances are instinctive. See Morgan, p. 178, and Romanes, Mental Evolution in Animals, pp. 222 f.

919.  Psychology of the Emotions, p. 265. The part assigned to imitation in seemingly spontaneous expression of emotion in a child, Baldwin, Mental Development in Child and Race, pp. 260 ff., does not affect this study of emotion in throngs.

920.  Die Spiele der Thiere, Jena, 1896, p. 8. See, however, Spiele der Menschen, pp. 4, 365 ff., 431, 446 ff., 511 f.

921.  So Noiré explained the case in the section on the development of language in his book, Die Welt als Entwicklung des Geistes, Leipzig, 1874. Like Donovan, too, he assumed that the first words were uttered under pressure of communal excitement, elation, joy, social sense. He assumes that social conditions quite overwhelmed the individual, who hardly existed as such. See pp. 266 f.

922.  Quoted, p. 328, by Morgan, from Lectures on Human and Animal Psychology, p. 397.

923.  See Wallaschek against this idea, above, p. 100.

924.  Work quoted, p. 21.

925.  Work quoted, p. 340. Play is thus tabulated:—

Compare with this the table given in Mr. Baldwin Brown’s useful book on The Fine Arts, p. 36.

926.  Lyre to Muse, pp. 127 f. Mr. Baldwin Brown, The Fine Arts, p. 23, also regards art in general as an outgrowth of festal celebrations.

927.  At the end of his Lyre to Muse, p. 209.

928.  Arbeit und Rhythmus, pp. 17, 25, 82.

929.  In Ribot’s Psychology of the Emotions, e.g., p. 332, ample justice is done to spontaneous emotion and expression.

930.  See Butcher’s translation, pp. 15 ff.

931.  So Butcher explains, p. 252: “a wild religious excitement, a bacchic ecstasy.”

932.  Kunstlehre des Aristoteles, Jena, 1876, pp. 83 ff. Gerber, Die Sprache als Kunst, I. 32, follows Aristotle in denying that improvisations are ever poetry, which is enthusiasm plus deliberation and selection.

933.  Vorlesungen, I. 356 ff. Compare I. 340.

934.  Waitz-Gerland, Anthropologie, I. (2d. ed.), 345.

935.  Vorlesungen, II. 117, 119. He calls the Homeric epos an artistic improvisation as compared with earlier spontaneous, instinctive improvisation. See also II. 20.

936.  Ibid., III. 141,—a mere note for his lecture.

937.  Die Geburt der Tragödie, oder Griechenthum und Pessimismus, 3d. ed. 1894; the immediate title, however, is Die Geburt der Tragödie aus dem Geiste der Musik.

938.  Welt als Wille, etc., I. 416. Nietzsche, pp. 22, 35 f.

939.  Lyric and folksong, according to Nietzsche, p. 48, are outcome of music. “Diesen Prozess einer Entladung der Musik in Bildern haben wir uns auf eine jugendfrische, sprachlich schöpferische Volksmenge zu übertragen, um zur Ahnung zu kommen, wie das strophische Volkslied entsteht.”

940.  The usual references for Bacchic or Dionysian orgies are Livy, IX. 4 ff., where minute particulars are given; Strabo, bk. X.; Athenæus, X.

941.  In Nietzsche’s mystic phrase, the chorus “auf seiner primitiven Stufe in der Urtragödie,” is “eine Selbstspiegelung des dionysischen Menschen ... eine Vision der dionysischen Masse.”

942.  See pp. 60 f. This artistic power is his definition of the poetic process. Professor Giddings, on hints of Mr. Spencer, has drawn a picture of solitary, primitive man arguing a spirit from the phenomenon of his shadow and of the echo of his voice. It may be pointed out that communal shouts and cries, echoed from the rocks, would be more likely to rouse a belief in that horde of spirits with which the primitive human horde thought itself surrounded. Early religion was social, communal; individual meditation, a process of individual thought, was utterly subordinate to communal thought. Even now superstition is a lingering “they say.”

943.  “Eine Gemeinde von unbewussten Schauspielern,” p. 61.

944.  Journal d’un Poète, p. 38.

945.  “Das charakteristische Merkmal der Volkspoesie,” Zeitschr. f. Völkerpsychol., XIX. (1889), 115 ff.

946.  Zeitschr. f. Völkerpsychol., XIX., p. 120.

947.  See Schultze, Der Fetischismus, pp. 30 ff., with his authorities.

948.  Two famous utterances voice this feeling. Swift loved his Peter, Paul, John, and the rest; he hated the human race at large. This for the outer circle. As for crowds, Schiller put the antithesis in a distich:—

949.  “Foules et Sectes,” in Essais et Mélanges Sociol., p. 4.

950.  Principles of Sociology, I. 459, 704 f. Tribe to nation, I. 584. Rise of professions due to “specialization of a relatively homogeneous mass,” III. 181. See II. 307 ff. In the First Principles, §§ 125, 127, he had defined the process as “change from an incoherent homogeneity to a coherent heterogeneity,” and had applied the idea not only to the primitive union of poetry, music, and dancing, but within poetic limits to that undifferentiated song which held in germ the epic, the lyric, the drama.

951.  Revue des deux Mondes, 15 Feb., 1898, p. 880; “le passage de l’homogène à l’heterogène,” that “idée mère, l’idée substantielle de l’évolution or in Haeckel’s words, “gradual differentiation of matter originally simple.”

952.  L’Évolution des Peuples, pp. 37 f. See also pp. 43, 167.

953.  Primitive Folk, p. 57.

954.  So the reviews summarize the doctrine of A. H. Keane, Man Past and Present, 1899.

955.  Critique Scientifique, pp. 112, 115.

956.  In the Rassenkampf and especially in Outlines of Sociology, trans. Moore, pp. 39, 124, 139 note; on p. 142 he names the factors which made a horde homogeneous.

957.  Dr. Richard Mucke, Horde und Familie in ihrer urgeschichtlichen Entwicklung, Stuttgart, 1895.

958.  Grosse, Format der Familie, pp. 30 ff. See p. 39. He takes as “representatives of the oldest form of social life” those scattered tribes which subsist entirely by hunting; we know nothing so primitive, and while checked in culture, these tribes are probably not degraded (32 f.). The statements in the text are based on careful arrangement of the statistics, a very important point. See Mucke, Horde und Familie, pp. 181 ff. Spencer describes the “small, simple aggregates,” coöperating “with or without a regulating centre, for certain public ends,” of which the “headless” kind must be regarded as the primitive type; and gives a list of these not very different from the list of Grosse. Prin. Soc., I. § 257.

959.  Grosse refuses to extend this lack of individual power to promiscuity in sexual relations. That precious theory was doubtless carried to an absurd point; but the reaction may likewise go too far, and the case of those Andamanese (p. 43) with their “absolute conjugal fidelity even unto death,” uncannily suggests Sir Charles Grandison and even Isaac Walton’s mullet.

960.  Anthropology, p. 79.

961.  Anthropologie, I. 74 ff., 349 ff.

962.  Waitz, I. 446, answers objections to this view, and disposes of the idea that civilization levels mankind.

963.  See above, p. 372, note 942.

964.  Anfänge der Kunst, p. 224.

965.  Ibid., pp. 300 f.

966.  Ibid., p, 236.

967.  Comparative Literature, p. 72. See pp. 89 ff., 155 ff., 347 f., and the whole chapter on “The Principle of Literary Growth.” He glorifies sympathy as the poetic mainspring; but he fails to study the dualism in terms of actual throng and actual artist. The spirit and plan of the book, however, are worthy of the highest praise, whatever its shortcomings in detail.

968.  Catullus, lxiv.

969.  Werke, VI. 26.

970.  Esthétique de la Tradition, pp. 69 ff.

971.  Spencer, Sociology, I. 56 ff., 70 f., II. 271, note; Grosse, Formen der Familie, p. 57, with quotation from Petroff’s book on Alaska; Schultze, Fetischismus, pp. 51 f.

972.  The Theory of Law and Civil Society, London, 1888, pp. 106 f. See above, p. 26.

973.  Professor Baldwin, Social and Ethical Interpretations, p. 214, puts the beginning of the social period just after man’s release from the animal. See too his appendix. Ribot, work quoted, p. 281, says the gregarious life—of animals in hordes, that is—“is founded on the attraction of like for like, irrespective of sex.” See this whole chapter on “The Social and Moral Feelings.”

974.  See, however, the case of New Zealanders who work in large numbers and in perfect accord by singing their song totowaka. Wallaschek, Prim. Mus., p. 43.

975.  Even Mr. Spencer points out that this is no bar to communal consent, Sociology, I. 59; for the variability implies “smaller departure from primitive reflex action ... lack of the re-representative emotions which hold the simpler ones in check.” Bastian, too, has shown that in the formation of society out of individuals, the social element as such, the social whole, must precede the element of social individuality or of the individuality within the mass. This is what one gathers from Bastian’s books in general; in one case, Die Welt in ihren Spiegelungen unter dem Wandel des Völkergedankens, p. 413, he applies this idea to the priority of social property as compared with individual property.

976.  Perhaps there is some connection between the fervour and merit of French war-songs like the Marseillaise, the Ça ira, and the fact that French literature as a whole is averse from undue stress upon the individual and does not suffer, whatever its other defects, from “too much ego in its cosmos.” Texte points out that Jean-Jacques, Germanic by nature, noticed this trait in the French. “Le je ... est presque aussi scrupuleusement banni de la scène française que des écrits de Port-Royal, et les passions humaines ... n’y parlent jamais que par on.” How contemptuously M. Brunetière, who has no superior in the appreciation of French literature as a whole, speaks of that new personal note, set in fashion by Rousseau, “most eloquent of lackeys!” See “La Littérature Personnelle,” in B.’s Questions de Critique, pp. 211 ff., and his review of Hennequin’s book in the same collection, pp. 305 ff.

977.  Boas, Report Bur. Ethnol., 1884-1885, pp. 564, 600 ff.

978.  Anf. d. Kunst, p. 132.

979.  On this baffling theme there is good reasoning in a neglected book by Noiré, Die Welt als Entwicklung des Geistes, pp. 240 f. He notes the mnemonic force of earliest words, which were few and used under strong emotional excitement; language was a kind of “thinking aloud.”

980.  Stated in different terms by W. von Humboldt, Werke, VI. 198.

981.  Wallaschek, Prim. Mus., pp. 70 f.

982.  I. von Döllinger, Beiträge zur Sektengeschichte des Mittelalters, Munich, 1890, II. 623 f., from an old Ms., “de hystrionibus et officiis inutilibus.” Priests are instructed what professions bar the granting of absolution,—an interesting passage. “Cum igitur meretrices ad confessionem venerint, vel hystriones, non est eis danda poenitentia, nisi ex toto talia relinquant officia,” etc.

983.  See Dana’s account of an improvising islander working in California, Two Years before the Mast, Chap. XIX.

984.  Wallaschek, quoting Portman, p. 278.

985.  J. Darmesteter, Chants Populaires des Afghans, Paris, 1888-1890, p. clxxxvi. The Afghans have got to a Browning level in poetry, if we may believe Captain Rafferty, Selections from the Poetry of the Afghans, London, 1862. “Shaida’s poetry ...” he says, “is deep and difficult.”

986.  Ahlwardt, über Poesie und Poetik der Araber, Gotha, 1856, p. 7.

987.  F. Michel, Le Pays Basque, Paris, 1857, pp. 214 f. The same is true of the Poles. See Talvj (here spelled Talvi) Historical View of the Languages and Literatures of the Slavic Nations, New York, 1850, Part IV., pp. 315 ff. Speaking of the Polish ballads, Mrs. Robinson says, “Their dances were formerly always accompanied by singing. But these songs are always extemporized. Among the country gentry ... the custom of extemporizing songs ... continued even down to the beginning of our own century.”

988.  “Etwas über William Shakspeare,” Werke, VII. 57 f.

989.  He refers to the Homeric hymn to Hermes, vv. 54-56: “The god sang to the playing what came into his mind, quickly, readily, just as at festal banquets youths tease one another with verses sung in turn.”

990.  Quoted by Chappell, II. 623.

991.  See the Greville Memoirs, III. 122, 202.

992.  Spence, Anecdotes (for Italy), pp. 116 ff., 120 note.