When the stage is required for other purposes the object holder can be unscrewed and removed. Beneath the stage there is a cylindrical fitting for the reception of a diaphragm, a polariser, or other apparatus. The mirror, besides swinging in a rotatory semi-circle, is made to slide up or down the stem. The microscope is supported by a firm pillar on a tripod base, and the body can be inclined at any angle convenient for working. A sub-stage can be added at any time for the reception of an achromatic condenser fitted with concentric screws—a necessity for more delicate microscopical research work.

Beck’s Star Microscope is in every sense a students’ or class-room instrument. It is firm and well made, with joint for inclination, large square stage, sliding coarse adjustment and fine adjustment by micrometer screw, draw-tube, iris diaphragm, double mirror on swinging crank arm, A or B eye-piece, a one-inch and quarter-inch objective, the magnifying power of which ranges from 38·5 to 183.

An early binocular microscope for dissecting purposes was devised by the late Mr. R. Beck. (Fig. 70.) This took the form of a simple instrument built up on a square mahogany base A raised about four inches upon four brass supports B B, having a large circular stage plate made to revolve on a second plate, on which the object is placed and brought under the eye for dissection. On the left hand side is a milled head rack and pinion K, which acts upon a horizontal bar I for focussing the magnifying lens. Another bar, R, carries the prism P and a pair of eye-pieces arranged on the principle of M. Nachet’s binocular microscope. Mr. Beck preferred to adopt Wenham’s method of arranging these prisms; that is, by allowing half the cone of rays to proceed to one eye without interruption, while the other half is intercepted by the prisms and transmitted to the other eye. Beneath the stage is the ordinary mirror L. The condensing lens M is supported on a separate brass holder let into one of the supports of the stand. In practice, however, this arrangement was found inconvenient, and the microscope has therefore not been brought into general use.

Messrs. Watson’s Microscopes.

Among London opticians, the various microscopes manufactured by Messrs. Watson, of Holborn, are of high finish and good workmanship. Those specially designed for the use of students possess merits of their own in their mechanical construction, and also embody a provision, as indeed do all their instruments, whether for students or more pretentious work, whereby wear and tear in their frictional parts can be compensated for by the user himself. This is effected in a simple but efficient manner. The fittings are sprung, and screws set just outside the dove-tails. The very slightest turn of the screws compresses the dove-tails, and a very large amount of wear can in this way be prevented.

I am glad to notice that Messrs. Watson have adopted certain standard sizes recommended some time ago by the Royal Microscopical Society for the diameters of eye-pieces. It would be a great advantage if the same standard became generally recognised and brought into use, since it is a matter of much importance to microscopists.

Watson’s Edinburgh Students’ Microscope (Fig. 71) is a thoroughly efficient one for all practical purposes, great care having been bestowed upon its smallest details, and it is not difficult to perceive the reason of its popularity among students. The tripod form of foot ensures great steadiness and firmness; the body carries the smaller 0·92 eye-piece, and with draw-tube closed is of the Continental length. The draw-tube is graduated to millimetres, and when fully extended the body measures 10 inches. The stage is provided with mechanical and rotary movements; the compound sub-stage with centring screws, rack and pinion to focus, and a means of lifting the condenser out of the optical axis when not required for use. Notwithstanding, none of the movements are at all cramped; a clear distance is maintained beneath the stage, affording plenty of room for manipulating the mirror. Both coarse and fine adjustments work with smoothness, the latter being on Watson’s latest improved principle—one revolution of the milled head moves the body ¹⁄₃₀₀ of an inch. The stage is of extra large size, to allow of the use of large culture-plates. No Continental stand of higher price compares with the Edinburgh microscope. Its height when placed in the vertical position is 11½ inches.

The various sizes of oculars adopted by opticians and at present in vogue cause considerable confusion. A standard size is specially needed for students’ and small microscopes. The standard long used by Continental manufacturers is 0·92 of an inch. The adoption of this size would place the eye-piece in the same position as that of the universal screw for the objective, formulated by the Royal Microscopical Society many years ago. The desirability of using standard sizes has been fully recognised by Messrs. Watson and they are now adapted to most of their microscopes. The English diameter, 1·35 of an inch, known as the “Ross” size, is retained in all their microscopes of large size.

Watson’s Mechanical Draw-tube.

An important feature in connection with the body-tube of Watson’s Edinburgh Students’ Microscope (as, indeed, in all their fully furnished instruments) is that they are provided with two draw-tubes; one moved by rack-work, the other sliding inside the body-tube. The advantage is, that the body can be made very short or extremely long, while sufficient latitude can be given to objectives corrected for either Continental or English tube-lengths, and to adjusting the same for thickness of cover-glass by variation of tube length. Should the cover-glass be thicker than that for which the objective is corrected, a shorter tube-length is necessary; if thinner, the body must be lengthened. This is effected by means of the rackwork draw-tube. The length of the body when closed is 142 millimetres (5⁵⁄₈ inches), and when the two draw-tubes are extended, 305 millimetres (12 inches), being, therefore, shorter than the Continental and longer than the English tube lengths. Both draw-tubes are divided into millimetres, and on the rackwork draw-tube a double scale is engraved, reading continuously from the sliding draw-tube when fully drawn out, or giving the body length when the rackwork draw-tube alone is in use. The utility of this mechanical draw-tube is that it permits of quick manipulation with perfect results.

The inside top of the draw-tube is smaller than the remainder, the former making a fitting for the eye-piece about 1 inch long, permitting of the tube being blackened inside up to this fitting, thus minimising reflection. The end of the draw-tube has the universal screw for using the apertometer, &c.

Watson’s Histological Microscope (Fig. 74) is a somewhat cheaper form of instrument, designed for the student; although of plainer construction it is quite as well made as the costlier model. It is provided with spiral rack and pinion coarse adjustment, and with this motion the greatest smoothness is preserved. There is no backlash, the teeth of the pinion never leaving the rack; so effective is it that a high power can be perfectly focussed by its means. It is also furnished with their universal pattern of fine adjustment. This can be had for £3 3s.

Messrs. Watson have among other accessories of value introduced in connection with their several microscopes a semi-mechanical stage, whereby they are enabled to reduce the cost of manufacture. Fig. 75 is an outline sketch of the same.

This stage is of the horse-shoe shape, with cut-out centre, constructed of ¼-inch brass plate, and measures over all 5¼ inches wide by 4 inches deep. Fitting on the edges of the main stage is a frame which is actuated vertically by means of a double rack and pinion from beneath, giving ¾-inch of movement, having controlling heads on either side of the stage; on the edges of this mechanical frame a sliding bar is fitted, consequently movement may be imparted either by rackwork or by hand. The mechanical movement, however is in one direction only; but as the bar carries the object, the worker can easily move the object out horizontally with the finger. The advantage of this stage is that the whole surface is perfectly flush, and the pinion heads are below its level, so that culture plates or continuous sections may be conveniently examined.

Another addition of considerable value is the centring underfitting for students’ microscopes.

This fitting places in the hands of student workers a means of accurately centring the sub-stage condenser, at a low cost. It consists of the usual underfitting tube, having a flange at the top which is fitted in a box between two plates. The centring is effected by means of two screws, which press the flange against a spring, as in the ordinary sub-stage centring movement. The fitting can be adapted to any form of Messrs. Watson’s and most other makers of students’ microscopes.

Watson’s Bacteriological Improved Van Heurck’s Microscope (Fig. 77) is in every way a superior instrument, and it at once conveys a favourable impression to the practical worker. When set up for use its many convenient points—its excellence of workmanship and the precision of its movements—seem to imply its special adaptation for the bacteriological laboratory and for other high-class work where absolute reliance has to be placed in the results obtained. Every detail of the instrument is carried out in the best possible manner. The coarse adjustment is effected by means of a diagonal rack and spiral pinion, which ensures the smoothest possible motion; while the fine, the most important movement in the instrument, is made with an extra long lever, a specialty of Messrs. Watson’s, and which imparts an extremely slow action: this is now one of the most delicate and reliable forms of fine adjustment. By its means the entire body is raised or lowered by means of a milled head fixed to a screw having a hardened steel point acting on a lever against a point attached to the body slide, in a dove-tailed fitting about 2½ inches long. Owing to the position of the controlling milled head on the limb, it can be worked with either hand. Another feature of importance is that, in using the fine adjustment the distance between the eye-piece and objective remains unaltered. All the frictional parts of the microscope have spring slots to the dove-tailed fittings, in which compensating screws are fitted. These are some few of the more important points, to which much thought and attention have been given. The body permits also of the use of objectives of any other optician, since its total length when the draw tubes are closed up is only 143 mm.; when extended, a total length of 320 mm. is available. By this means an ample margin is left for the correction for cover-glass thickness, whether the objective used be intended for the 160 mm. or 250 mm. tube length. The height of the microscope when placed in the vertical position is 13¹⁄₈ inches.

The Stage.—A somewhat new design has been used in building this up so as to reduce vibration to a minimum. The bracket carrying the stage, instead of being screwed on to the front of the limb, as is usually done, is made in a solid casting, taking the sub-stage beneath, and passing into the joint at the top of the foot. The joint bolt goes through the whole (limb and stage bracket), rendering the limb stage and sub-stage as firm as if it were one piece; a point of considerable importance.

The mirrors, which are plain and concave, are mounted on a swing arm, so that they may be turned aside when direct illumination of the object is required. On the right hand side also there is a steel clamping bar for fixing the microscope at any angle of inclination. The tripod foot, which has superseded most other forms, is adopted. At the points of contact with the table the feet are provided with cork pads, which give increased firmness and prevent vibration to some extent.

The sub-stage is provided with a fine adjustment of similar design to that employed for the focussing of the objective. It has become needful to embody such a refinement, in order that sub-stage condensers of large aperture, such as are in constant use for critical high-power work, may be adjusted with the same facility and precision as the objective—they, in fact, require it if the best work is to be got out of them. No pains have been spared by Messrs. Watson to render it absolutely perfect.

Watson’s Portable Microscope.—This instrument is similar in general detail to the Histological Microscope, but the foot, mirror stem, &c., are made to fold up in exceedingly compact form, and when set up for use the stand is perfectly rigid. Portable microscopes are, as a rule, but makeshifts. This, however, is a thoroughly sound, practical instrument and capable of best work with the highest power objectives, having good adjustments and universal size fittings throughout, so that the objectives and apparatus made for the larger instruments can be employed with it.

Watson’s Petrological Microscope (Fig. 79) is a modification of their Edinburgh Students’ pattern, and designed specially for petrological and mineralogical work.

A polariscope having prisms of large size is supplied with it, the analyser being fitted in the body, and the polariser in the under-stage fitting. The latter has a divided circle and a spring catch at every quarter circle. By removing the polariser and withdrawing the analyser, for which provision is made, the microscope can be used for purposes of ordinary research. A Klein’s quartz plate is fitted beneath the analyser, also in the body of the microscope.

The stage, which has a glass surface, rotates concentrically, and has a divided circumferential edge reading by the verniers. The eye-piece has cross webs to the diaphragm, and when it is desired, an analyser, having a divided circle fitted with a calc-spar plate, can be used above the eye-piece, and condenser lenses attached to the polariser for stereoscopic purposes. All the fittings have the universal thread, and are interchangeable.

Messrs. Swift’s Microscopes.

Messrs. Swift’s Microscopes have a well-established reputation for quality and good workmanship, and therefore can in no way suffer by comparison when placed beside those of other opticians. One of the characteristics of Messrs. Swift’s microscopes—and this runs through the whole series—is that they are all made to a standard gauge, so that the several parts of the instruments, as well as their accessories, are interchangeable; the cheaper forms, with those of the first quality and finish. Should the student, then, start with a No. 1 model, he can at any time build it up, as it were, with the accessories designed for a No. 3 or 4, that is, for an instrument of double the price he started with. The optical centre is preserved throughout the whole series of microscopes.

The tripod foot has, it appears, taken the place of some of their other forms of instruments, while their four-legged tripod, if it can be so designated, is a novelty of quite an unusual character.

The swing leg is attached to the framework of the tripod by the screw (Fig. A), which is provided with a powerful steel spiral spring, compressed between two steel collets when the screw is driven home, as shown in Fig. B.

The expansion of this spring will obviously take up and compensate automatically any wear and tear that is likely to occur between the bearing surfaces, and it is therefore impossible for the fitting to get loose.

Swift’s Four-legged Microscope (Fig. 80) is one possessing great stability in whatever position it may be placed; the body being supported on a horse-shoe platform, from which its four legs spring, the two front legs being fixed, while the hind legs are pivoted to the platform. This arrangement of pivoting the hind legs enables the microscope to adapt itself to any uneven surface, thus keeping it always in a steady position, while it also reduces the danger of being upset by any lateral movement of an accidental nature. The feet are studded with corks, an additional aid to steadiness and fixity for microphotography. The length of the body from the ocular to the nose-piece is 6½ inches, and can be extended to 9 or 10 inches by means of the draw-tube, which has a millimetre graduation. The stage, which is of horse-shoe shape, is provided with spring clips, to which a movable mechanical stage can at any time be attached. The sub-stage partakes of two forms, one being an ordinary fitting, taking an ordinary condenser; the other, the regular rack and pinion achromatic condenser with centring adjustments. It has a diagonal rack and pinion coarse adjustment, the fine adjustment being made by micrometer screw of the finest character.

Fig. 82 is intended to illustrate the advantage of the spiral rack and pinion which Messrs. Swift fit to their microscopes, in place of the ordinary conventional horizontal rack and pinion movement. The advantage will at once be seen, since there is more gearing contact between rack and pinion, thus ensuring durability and reducing loss of time or back lash to a minimum, with less wear and tear. The leaves of the pinion also roll into the teeth of the rack by degrees, ensuring a very much smoother action, which, if properly made and fitted, prevents the gearing of the two being felt by the hand whilst focussing.

Fig. 83 is a supplementary draw-tube with rack and pinion movement, which can be adapted to any of Swift’s microscopes in place of the ordinary draw-tube, the size of the thread being of the same diameter, so as to render all draw-tubes, as well as other parts of these instruments, interchangeable. The draw-tube being divided into millimetres can be extended from 160 to 250 millimetres. One advantage of this arrangement is that the correct adjustment of any objective with each eye-piece is easily found and recorded for future observations with the same combination.

Messrs. Swift’s Three-legged Tripod Microscope (Fig. 86). In most respects the description already given of the four-legged instrument is applicable to this stand. Although of an apparently different form, it can be built up, as already explained, into one of a higher class. It is suitable in every way for histological investigations. The horse-shoe platform in this, as in the preceding stand, is extremely serviceable, as it allows the pillar of the instrument to rest firmly upon it, thus rendering the stand very rigid.

Swift’s Bacteriological Microscope (Fig. 84), designed by Professor Wright, of the Army Medical School, Netley, a sufficient warranty of its excellency and perfect adaptation for bacteriological high-class work. One of the advantages connected with this microscope is the facility with which it can be adapted for either high or low power investigation, without the necessity of adding or detaching any part. The objectives, arranged on a triple nose-piece, are approximately in focus when revolved into position for immediate use, thus effecting a saving of time in changing the objective. Moreover, the nose-piece carrying the objectives is of new construction, and fitted in such a way that the entry of dust is rendered impossible.

The Abbe condenser, fitted with an iris diaphragm, is mounted on an eccentric arm, so that it can readily be thrown out of the axis of the microscope when not required, without having to re-arrange the focus when again brought into position. The condenser must be turned aside when plate cultivations and preparations of unstained bacteria are being looked over for selection of colonies for mounting, in which case an arm carrying a quadrant with three apertures is brought into position in place of the condenser, the apertures being severally centred by a spring catch and used with oblique light. This arrangement, shown in Fig. 85, is seen from the under surface of the stage. The stage is sufficiently large, so that when Petrie plates are being examined at the extreme edges there is little fear of their overbalancing.

The fine adjustment is the Swift’s Patent Campbell Differential Screw, which offers great facilities for delicate focussing with the highest power objectives. The stand is of the most substantial and rigid form, and thus ensures the microscope from vibration.

The under-stage of microscope (Fig. 85) is seen to be of the most approved form.

Swift’s Advanced Students’ Microscope.—In this microscope (Fig. 87) we have a superior instrument for the use of the advanced student, which may be described as of high mechanical excellence, well suited for every requirement of work. The stand is the well-known tripod form of their Challenger Microscope, and admits of the instrument being placed at any angle of inclination; the body is short enough to work with objectives of Continental makers, and is provided with a draw-tube, to elongate it to the standard of 10 inches, with a diameter of 1³⁄₁₆ inch to take the same eye-pieces as the larger stands. The coarse adjustment is by spiral rack and pinion; the fine, by a carefully made differential screw motion for delicate focussing. The stage is of the horse-shoe pattern, to which a mechanical stage can at any time be adapted, as well as an achromatic condenser to the sub-stage seen beneath. Here the student will find the foundation for a superior instrument.

Messrs. Baker’s Microscopes.

Of Messrs. Baker’s larger stands, the Improved “Nelson Model,” No. 2 (Fig. 88) stand is selected in preference to their more elaborate No. 1, and their simpler form, No. 3, as a high-class instrument, and one well suited for fine critical work; the former being somewhat better, only from having extra adjustments; the latter possessing no superior advantage over the “Advanced Students’” Microscope. This microscope is mounted on a solid tripod foot, which insures stability, whether placed in a vertical, horizontal, or inclined position; the front toes are slotted, so that they may be clamped to the base plate of a photo-micrographic apparatus, first introduced for photo-micrographic work, and will also be found convenient in ordinary work; as the fine adjustment milled head is placed at the bottom of the pillar, instead of at the top, the more usual place. For photo-micrographic work the advantage is that the strain of the pulley in such apparatus actuates the fine adjustment, and is less liable to cause vibration of the instrument. The advantage when the instrument is used for ordinary work lies in the fact that the weight of the hand is rested on the top of the tripod, thus admitting of steadier movement of the milled head. The fine adjustment is obtained by a “Campbell” differential screw, each revolution of which is equal to ¹⁄₂₀₀ m.m. The draw-tubes being graduated in m.m., allow of either short or long tube objectives being used, closing up to 150 m.m. and extending to 280 m.m., the rack and pinion adjustment to the lower tube affording a ready means of correction for cover-glass thicknesses. The eye-piece gauge, as will be seen from its dimensions, is of large size, being the same as that adopted by Zeiss for his long tube compensating oculars; smaller eye-pieces can, however, be adapted at any time.

The mechanical rotating stage is divided on brass to ¹⁄₁₀₀ inch, with clamping bars and stop, by which a specimen can always be brought back to a certain position for registration. The sub-stage has rack-work focussing adjustment, and centring screws; a fine adjustment is added, if desired. On the whole, the instrument is suitable for special critical work, and is equally well suited for photo-micrography.

The points of difference between this stand and the No. 1 model are that in the latter the fine adjustment carries the body only, and not the rack adjustment; the limb carrying both the body and the sub-stage is in one piece, giving, if possible, still greater rigidity; the rotation of the mechanical stage, which is divided on silver, is complete, and can be actuated by hand or rack work; it has a clamping screw and fine adjustment to sub-stage.

Baker’s Advanced Students’ Microscope (Fig. 89) may be described as a typical instrument, equally suitable for histological work and that of the advanced student. The intention of the maker in simplifying the adjustments and reducing the instrument in size, was to furnish a well-finished portable instrument at a moderate cost. This object has not been attained by supplying adjustments of second-rate quality, but by reducing their number to a minimum.

The tripod foot of the “Nelson Model” is replaced by a claw foot, which is in effect a tripod, as it rests on three points; it has not the same wide spread, but this, far from being a disadvantage, renders the instrument more portable. It has rack and pinion coarse and Campbell differential screw fine adjustments, draw-tube graduated in m.m., extending to 180 m.m., eye-piece gauge the same as the Continental size, large square open stage to afford the greater freedom of manipulation; sliding bar with graduations on bar and stage, which suffice for registering any given field under a low power; holes are also drilled in the stage ready to receive an attachable mechanical stage should it be thought advisable to add one at a later date. The sub-stage is of the universal size with rack-work focussing, adjustment, and centring screws.

Messrs. Baker have recently introduced a similar instrument with swing-out sub-stage and adjustments for compensating for wear and tear of rack. The stage is also somewhat larger from back to front.

These stands are very suitable for bacteriological research, and for amateurs wishing to obtain a stand which will carry all the apparatus they are likely to need, without going to the expense of the larger models, no better instrument could be desired.

Their “Removable Mechanical Stage” (Fig. 90) is a modification of the pattern designed by the late Mr. J. Mayall. The vertical movement is by rack and pinion, giving a range of 1¹⁄₈ inch. The horizontal motion of 1½ inch is accomplished by means of a quick-acting screw. The object is pressed tightly to the stage of the microscope by means of three points, and the whole of the mechanical part is firmly clamped by two thumb screws which can be readily removed. The stage is made to carry slides of any size less than 1¾ inch wide.

Baker’s Histological Microscope (Fig. 91) is of a different type to the preceding, and is intended to represent one of medium power, affording magnification of about × 400 as a maximum. It is supplied with a diaphragm beneath the stage, without other illuminating apparatus than that of the mirror. But if the adjustments of such a stand are good, there is no reason why some form of sub-stage condenser should not be added, to make the instrument somewhat more serviceable. There is, however, a rather too limited space beneath the stage of an instrument of this kind to admit of a sub-stage condenser, consequently it cannot be said to be suitable for critical work. For all ordinary students’ work this microscope is certainly available.

The stand of the Model Histological Microscope has the same form of foot as the more advanced student’s stand. It is somewhat lighter, and more portable, a matter of consideration in a student’s microscope, which often has to be carried to and from a class-room. It is provided with rack and pinion coarse adjustment, and a Campbell differential screw fine adjustment, draw-tube, and diaphragm; the diaphragm carrier being of the universal size, so that it can be replaced by an Abbe condenser at any time. With the additions suggested, this instrument can be made equal to those of a higher standard.

Rousselet’s Tank Microscope (Fig. 92), for rapidly looking over pond water and weeds, consists of a jointed arm moving parallel to the side of the tank to carry an aplanatic lens; the arm is focussed by means of rack and pinion fixed to the upright of a mahogany stand, upon which the tank can be placed, or it can be clamped directly to the tank by means of a screw. This handy form of pond microscope is made by Messrs. Baker.

Pillischer’s Microscopes.

Mr. Pillischer (New Bond Street) is favourably known for the excellency of his instruments. He has lately brought out several microscopes of an improved form. His larger model, the “New International,” consists of a solid, well-built, firm tripod stand of the Ross-Jackson pattern, which appears to be quite in the ascendant among London opticians; rack and pinion coarse adjustment, and a superior micrometer fine adjustment; sub-stage with centring screws and rack and pinion focussing adjustment; a new form of sliding pin-hole diaphragm and iris diaphragm; B and C eye-pieces; ⁵⁄₈ and ¹⁄₇ objectives; Abbe condenser, N.A. 1·20; in every respect a perfect model, neatly packed in a mahogany case, for a very moderate sum. Mr. Pillischer’s No. 2 (Fig. 93) “International” Microscope, being the Army pattern as well as the student’s, is well adapted for clinical work. A firm tripod stand supports two dark bronze uprights, with rack and pinion coarse adjustment, e, and fine adjustment, d, the stage, i, is wide and suitable for clinical work, and large enough for dissecting upon. The whole instrument is well made; the coarse adjustment is so good that the one-eighth inch can be focussed with ease, and without using the fine adjustment.

For a few shillings extra, a mechanical stage can be added, consisting of levers, having an action similar to the movements of a parallel ruler, which is so easy of adjustment that it can be worked under the eighth-inch objective with the hands—an advantage in a clinical microscope.

The following reference letters serve to explain the general construction of the microscope (Fig. 93):—a, the eye-piece; b, the draw-tube; c, the sliding-tube; d, micrometer or fine adjustment; e e, the coarse adjustment; g, the mirror arm and mirror; h, sub-stage carrying Abbe condenser; i, the stage with spring-clips; j, objectives screwed into place and double nose-piece.

The “Kosmos” is Pillischer’s cheaper model. The stand of this somewhat novel and original microscope is framed entirely of brass and gun-metal. The fine adjustment is very sensitive and perfectly steady, admitting of the highest immersion objectives being used. The optical parts are constructed upon principles consistent with the latest improvements. It has a claw-foot stand with a semi-circular arm, which carries the body, with sliding-tube coarse adjustment, and micrometer screw fine adjustment, with a large square stage diaphragm and mirror. The instrument is neatly packed in a mahogany box, together with the A or B eye-piece, 1-inch and ¹⁄₅-inch objectives of good defining and penetrating power, magnifying from 30 to 380 diameters, in mahogany cabinet, for the moderate sum of £5.

Pillischer’s Binocular Microscope (Fig. 94) is constructed on a plan somewhat intermediate between that of Beck’s and Ross’s well-known patterns, and in point of finish is equal to any student’s microscope in use. The semi-circular form given to the arm carrying the body increases the strength and solidity of the instrument, although it is doubtful whether it adds to its steadiness when placed in the horizontal position. The straight body rests for a great part of its length upon a parallel bar of solid brass ploughed into which is a groove for the reception of the rack attached to the body, the groove being of such a form that the rack is held firmly while the pinion glides smoothly through it. A steady, uniform motion is thus obtained, which almost renders the fine adjustment unnecessary. The binocular bodies are inclined at a smaller angle to one another than in most instruments; nevertheless, the range of motion given to the eye-pieces by the rack and pinion enables those whose eyes are widely separated to use the instrument with comfort. The prism is so well set that it illuminates both fields with equal intensity. The stage is provided with rectangular traversing movements to the extent of an inch and a quarter in each direction. The milled heads which effect these are placed on the same axis, instead of side by side, one of them—the vertical one—being repeated on the left of the stage, so that the movements may be communicated either by the right hand alone or by both hands acting in concert. The stage-plate has the ordinary vertical and rotatory motions, but to a much greater extent than usual; and the platform which carries the object is provided with a spring clip to secure the object when the stage is placed in the vertical position. A new form of sub-stage with centring screws is made to carry the Abbe achromatic condenser, diaphragm, polarising and other apparatus.

Continental Microscopes.

Continental Microscopes.—The better known among continental opticians are Zeiss, Leitz, Seibert, Reichert and Hartnack. All seem to have vied with each other in the attainment of perfection in the manufacture of the most useful forms of microscopes. The late Carl Zeiss did more for the modern microscope than either of the opticians referred to above. I therefore take a medium typical model of his from a long series of highly-finished instruments for my illustration. Zeiss’s successors have of late endeavoured to perfect the mechanical details of their instruments in three or four directions, i.e., fundamental features of the stand, stage arrangements, means of focussing, and illumination.

The Stand.—The general form of the stand still partakes too much of the original sameness of type introduced by Oberhäuser, and modified and improved by Hartnack; the “Babuchin” stand being still in favour with some few makers. The greater firmness and steadiness of Zeiss’s stand (Fig. 95) is secured by the horse-shoe form of foot, which, for the most part, is massive and well adapted to carry the stout uprights, which support a well-balanced, substantial body-tube and a graduated draw-tube, circular stage with a vulcanite disc, 4 inches in diameter; a sub-stage with centring arrangement for Abbe’s illuminating apparatus, and iris diaphragm and other diaphragms for use when the condenser is thrown aside. The mirror is full-sized, plane and concave. The coarse adjustment is regulated by a rack and pillion movement so perfect that objectives of medium power can be focussed by it alone. The fine adjustment is made by micrometer screw, the force exercised by which is transferred to the movable body by a single contact between two hardened steel surfaces. This ensures extremely delicate and uniform motion of the body which carries the tube.

The divisions in the milled head of the screw furnish a means for the registration of the vertical movements of the tube. In the latest stands, each division corresponds to an elevation or depression of the tube in the direction of the optic axis of 0·01 mm. By this means measurements of thicknesses may be made with a considerable degree of accuracy, the upper and lower surfaces of the object being successively focussed, and the amount read off on the milled-head, by the fixed index. In doing this, care must be taken to make both adjustments by a rotation of the screw in the same direction. The thickness of an object in air is then equal to the difference between the two readings. By this means the thickness of any other substance may be measured—that, for instance, of the cover-glass of the object.

The medium tube-length of the microscope is 160 mm. from the attachment of the objective to the eye-piece end. The draw-tube admits of the length being increased or diminished, and this may be read off by means of the millimetre scale engraved on the tube. My description of this model also applies to the higher class microscopes, which will be found in every way well finished and adapted to biological and scientific research.

E. Leitz’s of Wetzlar Microscopes.—This optician publishes a series of twelve high-class forms of instruments. By preference, the horse-shoe form of stand (Fig. 96) is adopted in the whole of this maker’s models, the body being supported on a hinge joint and clamped over, and fitted with a circular revolving centred mechanical stage, attached to the ordinary stage by means of a set pin, which fixes the stage in position. By removing the screw, the stage can be detached; in this way, the stage serves for searching over large surfaces and registering the results.