INDEX.

• A.
• Adélie, Terre, discovery of, 402.
• Agouti, the, of Patagonia, 419.
• Agriculture, state of, in Iceland, 79.
• Aigun, treaty of, 196.
• Air, remarkable moisture of the, in Taimurland, 225.
• ——, its perpetual motion in the Arctic zones, 225.
• Akurig, eider-ducks of, 81.
• Alaska, discovery of, 202.
• ——, climate of the, 269.
• ——, mountains and forests of, 269.
• ——, purchase of, by the Americans, 277.
• ——, telegraph through, 278.
• ——, travelling in, 278–289.
• ——, natives of, 278–289.
• ——, climate of, 284.
• ——, food in, 287.
• Albasin, the Russian fort of, built, 195.
• ——, destroyed by the Chinese, but rebuilt, 196.
• Albatross, wandering, of the Antarctic seas, 395.
• Alcyonians on the coasts of Greenland, 59.
• Aleutian Islands, causes which led to the discovery of the, 201.
• ——, extent of the, 270.
• Aleuts, their wretched condition under their masters, 273.
• ——, their skill and intrepidity in hunting, 273–276.
• Alexander, Cape, discovery of, 365.
• —— Island, discovery of, 401.
• Algerine pirates, ravages of, in Iceland, 95;
• and in the Westman Islands, 119.
• Almannagja, description of the, 73.
• Altai Mountains, crossed by the Cossacks, 195.
• Alten, copper mines of, 128.
• Altenfjord, vegetation of the borders of the, 128.
• America, North, treeless zone of, 18–22.
• ——, character of the Coniferæ of, 23, 24.
• ——, range of the caribou, or reindeer, of, 36–39.
• ——, the musk-ox of, 41.
• ——, the white dolphin in the rivers of, 61.
• ——, the black dolphin of, 61.
• ——, walruses of the shores of, 64.
• ——, history of the fur-trade of, 307 et seq.
• ——, first discoverers and settlers of, 335.
• America, North, destruction of the Greenland colonies, 335.
• ——, subsequent discoveries, 335 et seq.
• ——, attempts to discover the north-western passage to India, 342 et seq.
• America, Russian, its transfer to the United States, 272, note.
• Amoor, river, discovery of the, by the Russians, who relinquish it to the Chinese, 195, 196.
• ——, the country annexed by Russia, 196.
• Anakerdluk, in North Greenland, buried forest of, 29.
• Angekoks, or priests of the Esquimaux, 301.
• Animals, comparatively small number of, in the Arctic regions, 25.
• ——, the forests the head-quarters of many, 41.
• —— of the Arctic Seas, 59.
• —— of the coasts of Spitzbergen, 134.
• ——, fur-bearing, of Siberia, 209.
• ——, the, of Taimurland, 227.
• —— of Nishne-Kolymsk, 235.
• —— of Newfoundland, 378.
• ——, no land, in the Antarctic region, 394.
• —— of Patagonia, 418.
• Aniuj, vegetation of the valley of the, 235.
• ——, chief resource of the people of the, 237.
• Anjou, Lieut., his Arctic explorations, 233.
• Archangel, foundation of, 192.
• ——, New, site of the town of, 272.
• ——, fur-trade of, 273.
• ——, medium of exchange at, 276.
• Archers, the Ostiaks as, 187.
• Arctic regions, rivers of the, 17.
• ——, limits of the, 18.
• ——, the forests of the, 18–23.
• ——, their treeless wastes, or Tundra, 18.
• ——, in summer and winter, 19.
• ——, their extent and boundaries, 21.
• ——, animal life in the, 25.
• ——, influence of the sea and winds on the severity of the winter of the, 27.
• ——, the lowest temperatures felt by man, 27, 28.
• ——, how man becomes accustomed to the rigors of the winter of the, 28.
• ——, proofs of a former milder climate in the northern regions of the globe, 29.
• ——, beauties of Nature in the, 31–33.
• ——, land quadrupeds and birds of the, 34.
• ——, the seas of the, 49.
• —— compared with the Antarctic regions, 391.
• Arctic voyages of discovery, history of, 335 et seq.
• Are Thorgilson, his Icelandic works, 94.
• Argali (Ovis argali) of Siberia, 41.
• Arrows of the Ostiaks, 187, 188.
• Ascidians on the coasts of Greenland, 59.
• Ash, the, in the Arctic regions, 24.
• Asia, treeless zone of, 18–22.
• Athabascan Indians, hunting-grounds of the, 327.
• Atlassoff, the Cossack, his treatment of the natives of Kamchatka, 198.
• Atmosphere, transparency of the, in the Polar regions, 54, 55.
• ——, phenomena of, reflection and refraction, and their probable causes, 55.
• Auk, the giant, its rarity at present in Iceland. 85.
• Aurora borealis, 33.
• ——, splendor of the, in the Arctic regions, 33.
• Aurora borealis, terror of the Lapps at the, 157.
• ——, at Nulato, 281.
• Austin, Captain, his search for Franklin, 357.
• Avalanches of ice in Spitzbergen, 135.
• Awaklok and Myouk, their imprisonment on an iceberg, 298.
• Awatscha Bay, sea-birds of, 255.
• ——, its magnificence and extent, 256.
• B.
• Baaty Khan, his subjection of Russia, 191.
• Bachelor river, the, 412.
• Back (Mr., afterwards Sir George), his Arctic voyages, 346, 347, 349.
• ——, his search for Captain Ross, 354.
• ——, his discovery of Great Fish River, 355.
• ——, voyage in 1835, 355.
• Back’s river, discovery of, 355.
• Badarany, desert of swamps, the, 234.
• Baer, Herr von, his scientific journey to Nova Zembla, 151.
• Baffin, his voyages of discovery, 343.
• Baffin’s Bay, probable influence of the northerly winds on the depression of the temperature of, 27.
• Baffin’s Bay, walruses of the coasts of, 64.
• ——, discovery of, 343.
• Balleny, his discoveries in the Antarctic ocean, 401.
• —— Islands, discovery of, 401.
• Banks’s Land, proofs of a former milder temperature in, 29.
• Bards, or Scalds, of Iceland, 94.
• Barentz, William, visit of, to Spitzbergen, 138.
• ——, his voyages of discovery, 339.
• ——, his winter in Nova Zembla, 340.
• ——, his death, 342.
• Barley, cultivation of, in Norway, 124.
• Barren grounds, barrens, or tundri, Arctic belt of the, 18.
• ——, causes of their barrenness, 18.
• ——, their appearance in winter and in summer, 19.
• ——, indistinct and irregular boundaries of the, 21.
• ——, those of Newfoundland, 377.
• Barrow Point, traffic of, 302.
• Barter Reef, traffic of, 302.
• Bear, black, muskwa (Ursus americanus), value of the fur of the, 315.
• ——, description of him, 315, 318.
• ——, brown, of North America, 315.
• ——, value of the skins of the young brown bear, 211.
• ——, grizzly, of the Rocky Mountains (Ursus ferox), 315.
• ——, his skin, 315.
• ——, the polar, his mode of hunting, 65, 446, 448.
• ——, his favorite food and mode of seizing it, 65, 447, 450, 451.
• ——, anecdote of one, 65.
• ——, instances of his sagacity, 65.
• ——, parental care of the she-bear, 65.
• ——, her winter nursery, 65, 66.
• ——, her internal store of food for her hibernation, 66.
• ——, immense strength of claws and teeth, 66, 67.
• ——, his unwelcome visits to Iceland, 81.
• ——, of Spitzbergen, 137.
• ——, of Nova Zembla, 149.
• ——, Lapp mode of hunting the, 164–166.
• ——, Esquimaux methods of hunting the, 163.
• Bear of Newfoundland, 378.
• ——, abundance of, in Kamchatka, 258.
• ——, sea-, value of the skins of the, in China, 374.
• ——, chase of the, in the Pribilow Islands, 274.
• —— families and battles, 274, 275.
• ——, the Austral sea-, 399.
• ——, hunted by dogs, 453.
• Bear Island, or Cherie Island, account of, 143.
• ——, climate of, 144.
• ——, walruses of, 144.
• ——, boat-voyages of Norwegian sailors from, 145.
• ——, discovery of, 340.
• ——, surveyed by the Russians, 200.
• Beaver (Castor fiber), its skin the standard of exchange with the Canadian Indians, 313.
• ——, former enormous trade in the fur of the, 317.
• —— of Newfoundland, 378.
• Beaver Indians, their hunting-grounds, 327.
• Bee, sand (Andrena), of Nova Zembla, 154.
• Beech, Antarctic (Fagus betuloides), 410.
• Beechey, Captain, his voyage to Bering’s Straits, 350.
• Beerenberg mountain, 146.
• Bering, Titus, never passed through the straits bearing his name, 197.
• ——, his second voyage, 201.
• ——, his second voyage of discovery, 248, 249.
• ——, his bad conduct, 250.
• ——, his death, 252.
• Bering Island, Bering and Steller on, 251.
• —— Sea, description of the, 268.
• ——, barren lands at, 22.
• ——, seals and walruses of, 63, 64.
• ——, its climate, 269.
• ——, character of the shores of the, 270.
• ——, animals of the, 271.
• Bering’s Straits, view of the Old and New worlds in the, 271.
• ——, Captain Beechey’s voyage to, 350.
• Belcher, Sir Edward, his search for Franklin, 359.
• Bellinghausen, his discovery of the islands Paul the First and Alexander, 401.
• Bellot, Lieut., his gallant search for Franklin, 359.
• ——, his death and monument, 362.
• Beluga, or white dolphin (Delphinus leucas), description of the, 61.
• ——, domain of the, 61.
• Beluga Bay, visit of Von Baer’s party to, 151.
• Bennet, Stephen, his visit to Bear Island, 143, 144.
• Berry-gathering in Nishne-Kolymsk, 238.
• Bilberries of the Arctic regions, 24.
• Billings, voyage of, on the coast of Siberia, 201.
• Birch, paper, value of the, in North America, 304.
• Birch-trees in the Arctic regions, 24.
• Birds, flights of wild, in summer months, in the Tundra, 19.
• ——, their migrations to and from high latitudes, 43, 44, 67.
• ——, the polar singing-bird, the snow-bunting, 43.
• ——, raptorial, of the Arctic regions, 43.
• ——, enormous numbers of, along the Arctic shores, 67.
• ——, Icelandic, 81.
• —— of the coast of Norway, 124.
• —— of Spitzbergen, 133, 134, 137.
• —— of Nova Zembla, 154.
• ——, a bird bazar, 154.
• ——, abundance of sea-fowl on the coast of Kamchatka, 255.
• ——, Esquimaux mode of bird-catching, 295.
• ——, abundance of, on the coast of Greenland, 388.
• Birds of the coasts of the Antarctic sea, 394.
• —— of Patagonia, 419.
• Birkarls, their final subjugation of the Lapps, 156.
• Biscoe, his discovery of Enderby Land, and of Graham Land, 401.
• Black death, ravages of the, in the North, 383.
• Blackfeet Indians, their wars with the Tinné and Crees, 319, 320.
• Bloody Falls, on the Coppermine river, 294.
• Boats of the Esquimaux, 293.
• ——, the birch-bark canoes of North America, 304.
• Bogberries of the Arctic regions, 24.
• Booth, Sir Felix, his Arctic expedition, 251.
• Bougainville, his voyage through the Strait of Magellan, 414.
• Brandt, the Danish forester, his journey with Von Middendorff, 220.
• Brandy, fondness of the Samoïedes for, 171–173.
• —— drunk at Kolymsk, 238.
• Brant Ysbrantzoon, his voyages of discovery, 339.
• Bread of the poor Icelanders, 79.
• Bredal, Eric, his education of Lapps in Christianity, 156.
• Bridges, swing, of Iceland, 111.
• Browne, T. Ross, 74, 95, 104, 115.
• Buchan, Captain, his Arctic voyage, 344.
• Bunting, its migrations to and from the north, 43.
• ——, the Lapland (Centrophanes Lapponicus), latitudes inhabited by the, 43, 44.
• Bunting, the snow, the polar singing-bird, 44.
• Bunting, its nest and food, 44.
• —— of Iceland, 81.
• —— of Spitzbergen, 137.
• Burglars, treatment of, in Russia, 206.
• Burrough, Stephen, his voyage to discover the north-eastern passage, 336.
• Busa, Jelissei, his ascent of the rivers Lena and Olekma, 195.
• ——, his discovery of the Tana, 195.
• ——, his residence among the Jukahirs, 195.
• Butter made from the reindeer milk, 36.
• Butterflies in Taimurland, 227.
• Byron, Commodore, his voyage through the Strait of Magellan, 414.
• C.
• Cabot, John and Sebastian, their re-discovery of parts of North America, 335.
• ——, their re-discovery of Newfoundland, 379.
• Canada, enterprise of the French settlers in, 306.
• ——, results of the English conquest of, 306.
• ——, history of the fur-trade of, 307.
• Cano, Sebastian el, his voyage round the globe, 413.
• Canoes, birch-bark, of North America, 304, 305.
• Cape, North, description of the, 129, 130.
• Caribou, or reindeer of North America, range of the, 36.
• Carrancha, the, of Patagonia, 419, 420.
• Cartier, Jacques, his voyages, 335.
• Caryophyllæ, the, of the treeless zone, 21.
• Cascades of Iceland, 78.
• Castor and Pollux river, discovery of, 356.
• Castrén, Matthias Alexander, account of him and of his journeys, 168–178.
• Catherine’s Foreland, Queen, 409.
• Cattle, value of, to the Icelands, 80.
• Cavendish, his voyages, 414.
• Chancellor, his discovery of the passage from England to the White Sea, 192.
• Chancellor, his voyage to discover the north-eastern route to China, 336.
• ——, his visit to Moscow, and subsequent fate, 336.
• Charles IX., King of Sweden, his kindness to the Lapps, 156.
• Chatanga river, scanty population of the, 220.
• ——, Middendorff’s journey to the, 220, 221.
• Chatangsk, Middendorff’s journey to, 221
• Cheese made from reindeer milk, 36.
• Cherie Island, account of, 144.
• Chess-players of the Tungusi, 246.
• Chickweed, the, on the Mary Minturn river, 20.
• Chimengo, the, of Patagonia, 419.
• China, Castrén’s journey over the mountains into, 177.
• Chinese take the Russian fort of Albasin, 195;
• and make the treaty of Nertschinsk with the Russians, 196.
• ——, the treaty broken by the Russians, who compel the Chinese to give them the Amoor, 196.
• Chinga (Mephitis chinga), its fœtid secretion, 316.
• Christian IV., King of Denmark, his treatment of the Lapp priests and sorcerers, 156.
• ——, his expedition to Greenland, 383.
• Christianity, introduction of, into Iceland, 92.
• Churches of the Icelanders, 104.
• Clavering, his voyage to Greenland, 386.
• Clergy of the Lapps, their poverty and self-denial, 157.
• ——, their sermons, 157.
• ——, those of Iceland all blacksmiths, 101, note, 106.
• ——, their poverty, 106.
• Coal, does not exist in Iceland, 88.
• —— of Spitzbergen, 137.
• —— in Coal Bay, 145.
• Coal Bay, 145.
• Cochlearia fenestrata, the only esculent plant in Spitzbergen, 136, 142.
• Cod and cod-fishing of the coast of Iceland, 86, 87.
• ——, the, called stockfish, 87.
• ——, the cod-fishery of Norway, 125–130.
• ——, wretched state of the fishermen, 127.
• ——, exports of, to various countries, 129.
• ——, cod-fishery of Greenland, 388.
• ——, value of the cod-fishery of Newfoundland, 379, 380.
• ——, mode of fishing and curing the cod, 380.
• ——, dangers of the fishery, 381.
• ——, immense numbers of, 381.
• Cod-liver oil of Tromsö, 128.
• Collinson, Captain, his search for Franklin, 359, 361.
• Commodore Islands, chase of the sea-bear on the, 274.
• Condor, the, of Patagonia, 420.
• Coniferæ, Arctic forests almost confined to the, 24.
• ——, difference between the European and Asiatic and American species, 24.
• Constitution, Cape, discovery of, 369.
• Cook, his attempt to discover the northwest passage, 344.
• Cook, Captain, his discovery of South Georgia, 393.
• ——, his Antarctic voyages, 401.
• Copper mines near Drontheim, 124.
• —— of Alten, 128.
• —— of Raipass, 128.
• Coppermine river, Dr. Richardson’s voyage to the, 349.
• Cornelius Ryp, his voyages of discovery, 340, 341.
• Cornelius Corneliszoon, his voyages of discovery, 339.
• Corniculariæ, carpets of, and the treeless zone, 21.
• Cortereal, his voyages of discovery, 325.
• Cossacks, Don, their depredations, 192.
• ——, their conquest of Siberia for the Czar, 193.
• ——, their privileges and duties in Nishne-Kolymsk, 236.
• Coureur des bois, the, of North America, 304.
• Cranberries of the Arctic regions, 24.
• Cree Indians, uses of the paper-birch-tree to the, 305.
• ——, range of the various tribes of, 319.
• ——, their conquests of the Tinné, but subsequent defeat, 319, 320.
• ——, their wars with the Blackfeet, 320, 321
• ——, their character, 321.
• ——, their customs, habits, and dress, 321, 322, 323.
• ——, their wives and families, 323.
• ——, their cradles, 323.
• ——, their wigwams, or tents, 324.
• ——, their medicine-men and vapor-baths, 324.
• ——, their games and sports, 324, 325.
• ——, their wooden figures for worship, 325.
• ——, their malicious or capricious spirit, called Kepoochican, 325.
• ——, their notion of the Great Spirit and of the Deluge, 325.
• ——, their Tartarus and Elysium, 325.
• ——, prospects of Christianity amongst them, 326.
• Cross, the game of, of the Cree Indians, 325.
• Crowe, Mr., his copper mines at Alten, 128.
• Crozier, Captain, his last voyage, 356.
• ——, the last heard of him, 364.
• ——, his Antarctic voyages, 402.
• Cruciferæ, the, of the treeless zone, 20.
• Crustaceans, immense numbers of, on the coast of Greenland, 59.
• Cumberland Strait, Davis’s discovery of, 337, 338.
• Currents, magnificent system of, and their effects on the accumulation of ice, 56, 57.
• D.
• Dances of the Tchuktchi, 266.
• Darwin, Mr., his ascent of Mount Tarn, 411.
• Davis, John, his voyages to discover an Arctic passage to India, 337.
• ——, his visit to Labrador, 338.
• ——, his subsequent life, 338.
• Davis’s Straits, probable influence of the northerly winds on the depression of the temperature of, 27.
• ——, Sebastian Cabot’s discovery of, 335.
• Dead, reverence paid to the, by the Samoïedes, 181.
• Dease, Peter Warren, his land Arctic expedition, 355.
• Death, black, its ravages in Iceland, 95.
• Deception Island, account of, 393.
• Deer, red (Cervus elaphus), its habitat and uses to man, 40.
• Deer of Vogelsang and Treurenberg Bay, 137.
• Deluge, Cree legend of the, 325.
• Demidoff, foundation of the family of, 219.
• ——, their enormous wealth, 219.
• Deschnew, Semen, his the first and last voyage through Bering’s Strait, 197.
• Desolation, South, 412.
• Detti-foss, an Icelandic cascade, Mr. Gould’s description of the, 78.
• Disco bay, icebergs formed in, 49.
• Divers, their migrations to and from the north, 42.
• Dog-rib Indians, hunting-grounds of the, 327.
• ——, their character, dress, and customs, 327, 329.
• ——, their want of hospitality, 329.
• ——, their honesty, 329.
• ——, their notions of a future life, 329.
• Dog, the reindeer of the Lapps, 161.
• ——, Wrangell’s dog-sledges on the Polar sea, 239.
• ——, Icelandic, 80.
• ——, the, of the people of Kolymsk, 236.
• ——, the Kamchatkan, and dog-sledges, 258, 259.
• ——, their mode of foretelling storms, 259.
• ——, mode of training sledge-dogs, 259.
• ——, trained by Esquimaux to attack the bear, 297.
• ——, description of the, and dog-sledges of the Esquimaux, 299.
• ——, Dr. Kane’s Newfoundland and Esquimaux, 367.
• ——, epidemic amongst the Esquimaux, 372.
• Dolgorouky, Prince, his exile to Siberia, 205.
• Dolphin, white, or beluga, of Nova Zembla, 155.
• ——, Greenland fishery of the, 387.
• Dolphins of the Polar seas, 61, 398.
• ——, the beluga, or white dolphin, 61.
• ——, the black dolphin, “ca’ing” whale, or grind, 61.
• ——, the orc, or grampus, 62.
• —— of Spitzbergen, 137.
• Drake, Sir Francis, his voyage through the Strait of Magellan, 414.
• Drifanda Foss, an icelandic cascade, 114.
• Drontheim, the red deer near, 40.
• ——, description of, 124.
• Ducks, wild, of the Arctic regions, 19.
• ——, their migrations to and from the north, 42.
• —— of Iceland, 81, 84.
• Dudinka, Castrén’s visit to, 176.
• Dungeness, Point, 409.
• Durfoorth, his voyage and death, 336.
• D’Urville, Dumont, his discoveries in the Antarctic ocean, 402.
• Dutch, their expeditions to discover an Arctic passage to India, 339.
• E.
• Eagle, the sea- (Haliætus albicilla), of the north, 44.
• ——, his food, 44.
• ——, white-tailed, of Iceland, 85.
• ——, value of the skins of the, 85.
• ——, the, on the coast of Norway, 125.
• ——, in the Tundra in summer, 19.
• Ebierbing, 441, 466.
• Egede, Hans, his voyage to Greenland, 384.
• Egg-väre of the coast of Norway, 124.
• Egilson, Olaf, the Westman clergyman, his slavery in Algiers, 118.
• Eider-duck, its migrations to and from the north, 43.
• —— of Iceland, 81.
• ——, breeding of, 83.
• ——, Mr. Shepherd’s visit to one of its head-quarters, 83.
• Elder, the, in the Arctic regions, 24.
• Elephant, sea-, of the Antarctic ocean, 399.
• Elk, or moose deer, of the forests of the north, 38.
• ——, Cæsar’s account of it, 39.
• ——, its food and present habitat, 40.
• Elk, its mode of defending itself, 40.
• Enara, Lake of, the Fisher Lapps of, 166.
• ——, description of the, 169.
• Enderby Land, discovery of, 401.
• English pirates, ravages of, in Iceland, 95.
• Erebus, mount, eruption of, 403.
• Eric the Red, his visit to Greenland, 382.
• Ermine (Mustela erminea) beauty and importance of the fur of the, 210.
• ——, those of the Hudson’s Bay Territory, 316.
• Esk, volcano, 146.
• Esquimaux (see also Innuits), their wide extension, 290.
• ——, their own name of Innuit, 290.
• ——, character of the regions they inhabit, 290.
• ——, their physical character, habits, and manners, 290, 291.
• —— women, 291.
• ——, their dress and snow-huts, 291, 292.
• ——, their boat, the kayak or baidar, 293.
• ——, their weapons, and fishing and hunting implements, 293, 294.
• ——, enmity between them and the Red Indians, 294.
• ——, their chase of the reindeer, and bird-catching, 295.
• ——, their whale and seal hunts, 295, 296.
• ——, their “keep kuttuk,” 296.
• ——, their bear and walrus hunts, 296, 298.
• ——, their dogs and dog-sledges, 299.
• ——, their games and sports, 300.
• ——, constitution of their society, 300.
• ——, their angekoks, or priests, 300, 301.
• ——, their moral character, self-reliance, and intelligence, 301, 302.
• ——, their maps, and predilection for commercial pursuits, 302.
• ——, their voracity, and seasons of abundance and distress, 302, 303.
• ——, their dépôts of food, 302, 303.
• ——, their wars with the Kutchin Indians, 333.
• ——, their attack of Franklin’s boats, 349.
• ——, their hunting expeditions with Dr. Kane’s party, 370.
• ——, their ravages on the Greenland coast, 383.
• Europe, treeless zone of, 18–24.
• Evil Spirit of the woods of the Laplanders, 157.
• Exiles, Siberian, 204, 205.
• ——, annual number of, 206.
• Eyjafialla, eruption of, in 1821, 96.
• Eystein, King, his benevolence, 126.
• F.
• Faeroe Islands, chase of the black dolphin, or “ca’ing” whale, in the, 61.
• Falkland Islands, climate of, 394.
• Famine, Port, rich vegetation of, 410, 414.
• Festuca of the Arctic regions, 20.
• Finback whales of Spitzbergen, 137.
• Finches in the Tundra in summer, 19.
• Finmark, trade and fisheries of the coast of, 129.
• Finnur Johnson, the Icelander, his “Ecclesiastical History of Iceland,” 98.
• Fir, different species of, in Europe, Asia, and America, 24.
• Fish, and fishing season of Iceland, 86.
• ——, abundance of, in Kamchatka, 255.
• —— of Newfoundland, 379.
• —— of Greenland, 387.
• Fish river, Great, Back’s discovery of, 355.
• Fisher Lapps, account of the, 166.
• Fiskernasset, cod-fishery of, 388.
• Fitzroy, Captain, his surveys of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, 415.
• Fjall Lappars, or Mountain Lapps, account of the, 159.
• Flatey, eider-ducks of, 81, 82.
• Flat-fish, abundance of, on the coasts of Iceland, 87.
• Floki, the Viking, his visit to Iceland, 90.
• Flora of Spitzbergen, 136.
• Flowers of the Arctic regions, 20.
• —— of the island of St. Lawrence, 271.
• —— of Taimurland, 226.
• —— of Unalaschka, 269.
• Fogs of the Arctic seas in summer, 54.
• —— near the island of St. Lawrence, 270.
• —— off Newfoundland, 380.
• Food, amount of, required by man in the Arctic regions, 28.
• Forest regions, Arctic, 18.
• ——, extent of the, 22.
• ——, character of the trees of the, 24.
• ——, distinctive character of the forests, 25.
• ——, characters of the Arctic forests of the Miocene period, 28, 29.
• ——, legions of gnats in the, 25.
• ——, changes being effected by the agency of man, 25.
• Forests, the, head-quarters of many of the Arctic fauna, 41.
• ——, more in than above the earth in Nova Zembla, 153.
• ——, of Newfoundland, 376.
• Forget-me-not found in Nova Zembla, 153.
• Forster, Captain, his expedition to the Antarctic sea, 393.
• Fossils, Arctic, in New Siberia, 203.
• Foulke, Port, Dr. Hayes’s winter at, 372.
• Fox, the Arctic (Canis lagopus), its mode of protecting itself from the most intense cold, 42.
• Fox, the Arctic, its food and enemies, 42.
• —— of Spitzbergen, 137.
• —— in Nova Zembla, 154.
• —— found in Taimurland, 227.
• —— of Newfoundland, 378.
• ——, black, of Siberia, value of the fur of the, 211.
• ——, the Brazilian (Canis Azaræ), of Patagonia, 419.
• —— red (Vulpes fulvus), the, 211, 317.
• —— value of the fur of the, 317.
• Fox Islands, discovery of the, 201.
• France, right of the people of, to fish on the banks of Newfoundland, 379.
• Franklin, Lieut. (afterwards Sir John), his first Arctic voyage, 344.
• ——, his first land journey, 346.
• ——, his second land journey to the shores of the Polar sea, 349.
• ——, loss of his first wife, 350.
• ——, his last voyage, 356.
• ——, searching expeditions sent for him, 356.
• ——, his fate and that of his companions, 362–364.
• Franklin Island, discovery of, 403.
• Fraser river, voyage of Mackenzie down the, 308.
• Frederick II., King of Denmark, his expedition to Greenland, 383.
• Frederick IV., his foundation of the Finmark mission, 156.
• Friedrich, the Saxon bishop, introduces Christianity into Iceland, 92.
• Fritillaria Sarrana, used as food in Kamchatka, 258.
• Frobisher, Martin, his endeavors to discover an Arctic passage to India, 337.
• ——, discovery of relics of, 466.
• ——, his subsequent career, 337.
• Froward, Cape, scenery of, 410.
• Frozen sailor, 464.
• Fruits of the Arctic regions, 21.
• Fuego, Tierra del, climate of, 393.
• ——, origin of the name, 413.
• ——, Captain Fitzroy’s survey of, 415.
• ——, account of the Fuegians, 425.
• ——, degradation of the Fuegians, 425, 426.
• ——, their powers as mimics, 426.
• ——, their notions of trade, 427.
• ——, causes of their low state of civilization, 427.
• ——, their food, 428.
• ——, their dress, huts, arms, and ornaments, 428, 429.
• ——, their cannibalism, 430.
• ——, their language, 430.
• ——, Captain Fitzroy’s three Fuegians, 430, 431.
• ——, missionary labors, 431.
• ——, Captain Gardiner, 431.
• Fuel, kinds of, used in Iceland, 89.
• Fur, account of the Russian Fur Company, and its operations, 272.
• ——, account of the fur-trade of the Hudson’s Bay Company, 304 et seq.
• ——, trade in, at the fair of Obdorsk, 189.
• —— of Siberia, 208.
• ——, importance of the trade in, 212.
• —— of the Tchuktchi, 264.
• G.
• Gabriel Channel, williwaws of, 412.
• Gadflies which attack the reindeer, 38.
• Galictis vittata, the, of Patagonia, 418.
• Gambling of the Cree Indians, 324.
• Gardar, the northern pirate, his the first circumnavigation of Iceland, 90.
• Gardar’s Holm, or Gadar’s Island, Iceland so called, 90.
• Gardiner, Captain, his mission to Fuegia, and melancholy end, 431.
• Gawrilow, produce of the gold mine of, 218.
• Geese, wild, of the Arctic regions, 19.
• ——, snow, their migrations to and from the north, 43.
• —— of Iceland, 81.
• “George Henry,” the ship, 436.
• George, St., climate of the island of, 270.
• ——, sea-lions and guillemots of, 271.
• Georgia, South, discovery of, 393.
• Germany, the elk or moose-deer of, in the time of Cæsar, 39.
• Geysir, the Great, description of the, 71.
• Gheritz, Dirck, his discovery of the New Shetland Islands, 392.
• Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, takes possession of Newfoundland, 379.
• Ginkloti, or children’s disease, in the Westman Islands, 118.
• Gissur, his work on his voyages to the East, 94.
• ——, the Icelander, his learning and travels, 98.
• Gjas, or chasms, in Iceland, 76, 77.
• Glacier, the great, in the Gulf of Penas, 394.
• Glaciers, enormous dimensions of the, of the polar regions, 50.
• Glaciers of Magdalena Bay, 135;
• ice cliffs and avalanches of, 135.
• —— of the Beerenberg mountain, 146.
• Glottoff, Stephen, his discovery of Kadiak, 202.
• Gloves, reindeer, of Tornea, 37.
• Glutton, or wolverine, strength and fierceness of the, 37.
• Glutton, its attack of the reindeer, 37, 38.
• ——, its voracity, 38.
• ——, found in Taimurland, 227.
• ——, those of North America, 316.
• ——, value and uses of the fur of the, 316.
• Gnats, legions of, in the forests and swamps, 26.
• Goda-foss, the, an Icelandic cascade, 78.
• Gold diggings of Eastern Siberia, 208.
• ——, description of the gold-fields, 214.
• Gomez, his voyages of discovery, 335.
• Goose, bean (Anser segetum), of Nova Zembla, 155.
• Goose, Brent, its migrations to and from the north, 43.
• ——, its rapid flight, 43.
• Graah, Captain, his explorations of the coast of Greenland, 386.
• Graham Land, discovery of, 401.
• Grampus, or orc (Delphinus orca), description of the, 62.
• ——, his ferocity and mode of ploughing the seas, 62.
• —— of Nova Zembla, 155.
• —— of the Antarctic Ocean, 398.
• ——, conflict of one with a whale, 398.
• Grasses, tufted, of the Arctic regions, 20.
• —— of the treeless zone, 21.
• ——, paramount importance of the grasses in Iceland, 79.
• —— of Taimurland, 226.
• Greenland, vast ice-fields of, 27.
• ——, proofs of a former milder climate in, 29.
• ——, enormous dimensions of the glaciers of, 50.
• ——, the, whale, 60.
• ——, transparency of the water on the coast of, 59.
• ——, abundance of animal life in the seas of, 60.
• ——, walruses of the coasts of the north of, 64.
• ——, Kane’s sledge journey along the coast of, 367.
• ——, unknown extent of, 382.
• ——, ancient Scandinavian colonists of, 382.
• ——, the name of, given to it, 382.
• ——, introduction of Christianity in, 382.
• ——, decline and fall of the country, 383.
• ——, subsequent explorations of, 383.
• ——, Hans Egede, the pastor, his voyage to, 384.
• ——, foundation of Godthaab in, 384.
• ——, arrival of Herrenhuth missionaries in, 384.
• ——, explorations of the coast of, 385.
• ——, present Danish settlements of, 386.
• ——, scanty population of, 386.
• ——, mode of life of the people of, 386, 387, 389.
• ——, fisheries of, 388.
• ——, poorness of the land in, 388.
• ——, quantities of drift-wood at, 388.
• ——, minerals of, 389.
• ——, Christianity in, 389.
• ——, climate, mountains, and fjords of, 389.
• ——, ice-caves of the coast of, 390.
• ——, the capital of, 437.
• Greenlanders, their discovery of, and colonies in America, 335.
• ——, destruction of their colonies, 335.
• ——, their habits, 437.
• Greiffenfeld, his imprisonment in Munkholm, 124.
• Grinds. See Dolphins, black.
• Grinnell Land, vegetation of, 20.
• ——, Dr. Hayes’s discoveries in, 372–374.
• Guanaco, the, of Patagonia, 419.
• Guano, circumstances which favor the deposit of, 418.
• Guillemot, on the Pribilow Islands, 271.
• Gulf Stream, influence of, on the south and west coasts of Iceland, 79;
• and on the climate of Norway, 121.
• Gull, Ross’s, distance north at which it has been seen, 67.
• Gull, ivory, in Taimurland, 227.
• Gustavus I., King of Sweden, his kind treatment of the Lapps, 156.
• Gustavus Adolphus, his foundation of a school for the Lapps, 156.
• H.
• Haddocks, abundance of, on the coast of Iceland, 87.
• Hakon, King of Norway, his annexation of Iceland, 95.
• Hall, Charles Francis, his Arctic expedition, 433–467.
• ——, James, his voyage to Greenland, 383.
• Hammerfest, description of the town of, 129.
• ——, traffic of, 129.
• ——, the people of, 129.
• ——, cargoes of walruses and seals brought from Spitzbergen, 143.
• Hare, the fur of the, of Siberia, 212.
• ——, ice (Lepus glacialis), 317.
• ——found in Taimurland, 227.
• Hare Indians, hunting-grounds of the, 327.
• ——, their women, 328.
• Harold Haafager, or the Fair-haired, his establishment of an absolute monarchy in Norway, 90.
• ——, exodus caused by his tyranny, 91.
• Harp-seal of the Polar seas, 62.
• Hatherton, Cape, discovery of, 365.
• Haven, Lieut, de, his search for Franklin, 357, 358.
• Hawks in the Tundra, in summer, 19.
• Hayes, Dr., his sledge journey over Kennedy Channel, 368.
• ——, his Arctic voyage in 1860, 372–374.
• ——, his opinion as to what may be done in the Arctic regions, 374.
• Hecla, eruptions of, since the colonization of Iceland, 95–97.
• “Hecla” and “Fury” Straits, discovery of, 348.
• Heemskerk, his voyages of discovery, 340.
• Heineson, Mogens, the “sea-cock,” his voyage towards Greenland, 383.
• Hepburn, John, the sailor, his overland journey, 346.
• Herald Island, discovery of, 360.
• Heimaey, or Home Island, description of, 116.
• Herring, the fishery of the coast of Norway, 125.
• ——, food for the rorqual, or fin-whales, 61.
• ——, abundance of the, on the coasts of Iceland, 87.
• Hesperis, the, on the Mary Minturn river, 20.
• Hildringen, agriculture of, 124.
• Hobson, Lieut., his search for Franklin, 362, 364.
• Holme, the, of Norway, 124.
• Hood, Robert, his Arctic journey, 346.
• ——, murdered, 347.
• Horn, Cape, discovery of the passage round, 414.
• Horse, the, in Iceland, 80.
• —— of the Jakuts, 230–232.
• Hrafnagja, 75.
• Hudson, Henry, visit of, to Spitzbergen, 138.
• ——, his the first attempt to sail across the North Pole, 342.
• ——, his subsequent voyages and discoveries, 342.
• ——, his melancholy end, 343.
• Hudson’s Bay, barren lands of, 22.
• ——, characters of the Coniferæ of, 24.
• ——, walruses of the coasts of, 64.
• ——, discovery of, 312.
• Hudson’s Bay Company, account of the fur-trade of the, 304.
• ——, the old coureur des bois and the modern voyageur of, 304, 305.
• ——, history of the, 307.
• ——, formation of a rival company, and subsequent amalgamation of the two, 307–310.
• ——, palmy days of the, 310.
• ——, its reconstruction in 1863, 310.
• ——, its trading-posts, and their management, 310, 311.
• ——, its efforts to civilize the native tribes, 312.
• ——, the standard of exchange, the beaver-skin, 313.
• ——, extent of the fur-trade of, 313.
• ——, account of the fur-bearing animals of the Territory, 313, 314.
• Hudson river, discovery of the, 342.
• Hudson’s Straits, Sebastian Cabot’s discovery of, 335.
• Humboldt Glacier, the Great, 50.
• ——, Kane’s description of the, 367.
• Humming-bird on the peninsula of Aliaska, 269.
• —— in Newfoundland, 378.
• —— of Patagonia, 420.
• Huts of the Esquimaux, 293.
• —— of the Icelanders, 102.
• Hvalö, island of, 129.
• Hvita river, in Iceland, 78.
• I.
• Ice, vast fields of, in the plateaus of Spitzbergen, Greenland, and Nova Zembla, 27.
• ——, floating masses of, in the Polar seas, 45.
• ——, enormous extent of the Polar glaciers, 49, 50.
• ——, causes which prevent the accumulation of Polar ice, 55, 56.
• ——, a bad conductor of heat, 57.
• ——, ice-fields of Iceland, 69.
• ——, glaciers, ice-cliffs, and avalanches of Spitzbergen, 135, 136.
• ——, impediments offered by the hummocks to travellers on the Polar sea, 240.
• ——, icebergs of the Antarctic sea, 392.
• ——, ice-caves of Greenland, 390.
• ——, the great ice-barrier of the Antarctic Ocean, 403.
• ——, pack-ice of the Antarctic Ocean, 404, 405.
• Icebergs, 46.
• ——, forms and size of, 48.
• ——, origin of, 48.
• ——, localities in which most of the icebergs of the North Atlantic are formed, 49.
• ——, Dr. Hayes’s description of, in a midnight sun, 50.
• ——, how distinguished at night and in fogs, 52.
• ——, dangers of collisions with, 52.
• ——, protection to ships afforded by, 53.
• ——, dangers of anchoring to, 53.
• Icebergs, “calving” of, 54.
• ——, crumbling of, 54.
• Ice-blink, description of the phenomenon of, 54.
• ——, its advantages to the Arctic navigator, 54.
• Ice-fields, 46.
• ——, hummocks on, 46.
• ——, collision of, 48.
• ——, dangers caused by, to ships, 48.
• Ice-grotto of Surts-hellir, 77.
• Iceland, volcanic origin of, 68.
• ——, the country in winter and in summer, 68, 79.
• ——, sterile portions of the island, 69.
• ——, its immense ice-fields, 69.
• ——, its lava-streams, 69, 77.
• ——, the burning mountains of Krisuvik, 69.
• ——, the mud-caldrons and hot springs, 70.
• ——, the Great Geysir, 71.
• ——, the Strokkr, 72.
• ——, crystal pools, 73.
• ——, the Almannagja, 73, 74.
• ——, the Surts-hellir, or caves of Surtur, 77.
• ——, rivers and cascades of, 78.
• ——, influence of the ocean currents on the climate, 78.
• ——, mean annual temperature, 79.
• ——, absence of trees in, 79.
• ——, vegetation and condition of agriculture, 79.
• ——, indigenous land quadrupeds, 80.
• ——, cattle of the Icelanders, 80.
• ——, beverages, 80.
• ——, mode of shearing sheep, 80.
• ——, characteristics and number of horses, 80.
• ——, the reindeer, 80, 81.
• ——, the polar bear, 81.
• ——, the eider-duck, 81, 88.
• ——, the giant auk, 85, 86.
• ——, Icelandic fish and fishing season, 86, 87.
• ——, hospitality of the people, 87.
• ——, minerals of the country, 88.
• ——, fuel used by the Icelanders, 88.
• ——, history of, 89.
• ——, Naddodr’s discovery of the Ice Land, 89;
• which he named Snowland, 99.
• ——, circumnavigated by the pirate Gadar, and called by him Gardar’s holm, 90.
• ——, visited by the viking Floki, and called by him Iceland, 90.
• ——, foundation of Reykjavik by Ingolfr and Leif, 90.
• ——, exodus from Norway to, 91.
• ——, introduction of the Norwegian language and customs, 91.
• ——, code of laws of Uffliot the Wise, 91.
• ——, the ancient Althing at Thingvalla, 91, 92.
• ——, introduction of Christianity into the island, 92.
• ——, the golden age of Icelandic literature, 94.
• ——, history of, annexation of the island to Norway, 95.
• ——, its subsequent misfortunes, 95.
• ——, volcanic eruptions, 95.
• ——, misery caused by the curse of monopoly, 97.
• ——, hope for the future of the islanders, 97.
• ——, account of the Icelanders of the present day, 98.
• ——, Skalkott, the former capital of the island, 98.
• ——, the present capital, Reykjavik, 100.
• ——, state of trade in, 100.
• ——, the merchant and the peasant, 101.
• ——, temperate habits of the people, 101.
• ——, condition of agriculture, 102.
• Iceland, a harvest home, 102.
• ——, winter life, 102, 108, 109.
• ——, huts of the Icelanders, 102, 103.
• ——, churches, 104.
• ——, clergymen all blacksmiths, 101, note, 106;
• their poverty, 106–108.
• ——, the Iceland poet, John Thorlakson, 107.
• ——, education of the clergy and children, 108, 109.
• ——, industry and thirst for knowledge of the people, 109;
• their language, 109.
• ——, the library of Reykjavik, 109.
• ——, the Icelandic Literary Society, 110.
• ——, Icelandic newspapers, 110.
• ——, health of the people, 110.
• ——, difficulties and expense of travelling, 110–113.
• —— moss, eaten and exported by the Icelanders, 79.
• —— moss, food for the deer of Spitzbergen, 137.
• ——, in the treeless zone, 21.
• Idols of the Samoïedes, 180.
• Igloolik, island of, 348.
• Iligliuk, the Esquimaux, her intelligence and passion for music, 348.
• Indians, Red, their enmity with the Esquimaux, 294.
• ——, their decimation by smallpox and drunkenness, 308.
• ——, efforts of the Hudson’s Bay Company to civilize them, 312, 313.
• ——, the beaver skin their standard of exchange with the Company, 313.
• Inglefield, Captain, his search for Franklin, 359.
• ——, his discoveries, 365.
• Ingolfr, the Norwegian yarl, his visit to Iceland, and foundation of Reykjavik, 90.
• Innuits, the, see also Esquimaux, 433, 467.
• ——, their character, 439, 461.
• ——, amusement of, 440.
• ——, their dwellings, 443, 457, 462.
• ——, distress in winter, 444.
• ——, seal, feasts of, 445.
• ——, mode of capturing seals, 446, 448, 452.
• ——, their dogs, 445, 450, 454.
• ——, their opinion of the bear, 451.
• ——, mode of hunting the walrus, 454.
• ——, their implements, 456.
• ——, mode of constructing an igloo, 457.
• ——, their use of the reindeer, 458.
• ——, their clothing, 460.
• ——, reindeer feasts, 459.
• ——, food and mode of eating, 460.
• ——, their religious ideas, 460.
• ——, treatment of the sick, 461.
• ——, gradual extinction, 462.
• Insects of Taimurland, 227.
• Irish colonists on the Westman Islands, 115.
• Irkutsk, extreme cold of, 208.
• ——, Wrangell’s visit to, 233.
• ——, summer flowers of, 233.
• Iron mines near Drontheim, 124.
• Isabella, Cape, discovery of, 365.
• Ishemsk, Castrén’s visit to, 174.
• ——, the Isprawnik of, and his wife, 174, 176.
• Islands within the Arctic Circle, barren grounds of the, 18.
• Isleif, the oldest chronicler of the North, 98.
• Issakow, of Kem, rounds the north-eastern extremity of Nova Zembla, 150.
• Itälmenes, cruelty of their conquerors, the Russians, 198.
• Ivan Wasiljewitsch I., first Czar of Russia, his defeat of the Tartars, 191.
• Ivan Wasiljewitsch I., subdues the Great Novgorod, 191.
• ——, becomes head of the Greek orthodox Church and the first Czar, 192.
• ——, Chancellor’s visit to him at Moscow, 336.
• Ivan Wasiljewitsch II., his conquest of Kasan, 192.
• ——, his surname of the Terrible, 192.
• Ivory, fossil, in the islands of New Siberia, 202.
• Iwalo river, in Lapland, Castrén’s journey on the, 169.
• J.
• Jakowlew family, 219.
• ——, their enormous wealth in gold mines, 219.
• Jakuts, the, confirmed by the Czar in their possessions, 199.
• ——, their snares and traps, 213.
• ——, their energy and cunning, 228.
• ——, their language, origin, character, and personal appearance, 228.
• ——, their summer and winter huts, 229.
• ——, their horses, 230.
• ——, their powers of endurance and sharpness of vision, 230.
• ——, their manufactures and articles of dress, 231.
• ——, their gluttony, 231.
• ——, the universal carriers to the east of the Lena, 231.
• ——, their superstitions, 232.
• ——, their offerings of horsehair to the spirit of the mountains, 232.
• ——, their songs, 232.
• ——, wretched condition of the river, 252.
• Jakutsk, mean temperature of, in summer and winter, 27.
• ——, extreme cold of, 208.
• ——, gloomy appearance of the town, 233.
• ——, trade of, 233.
• Jan Meyen, description of, 146.
• Jelly, made from the horns and claws of the reindeer, 37.
• Jelly-fish (Pleurobrachia pileus) in the sea of Kara, 151.
• Jenissei river, Castrén’s journey to the, 176.
• Jeniseisk, Castrén’s visit to, 177.
• ——, the ostrog of, founded, 195.
• Jyrfalcon (Falco gyrfalco), its head-quarters in Iceland, 85.
• ——, former trade in the, 85.
• Jilibeambaertje, or Num, the Supreme Being of the Samoïedes, 179.
• “John, Gentleman,” the English pirate, 118.
• John’s, St., capital of Newfoundland, 378.
• Jökuls, or ice-mountains of Iceland, 68.
• Jökulsa i Axarfirdi river, in Iceland, 78.
• Jökulsa river, in Iceland, 78.
• Jones’s Sound, discovery of the entrance to, 343.
• Jukahires, chief resource of those of the Aniuj, 237.
• ——, Jelissei Busa’s residence among the, 195.
• K.
• Kadiak, island of, discovery of the, 202.
• Kaiak, island of, landing of Stella on the, 249.
• “Kalewala,” Castrén’s Swedish translation of the, 170.
• Kamchatka, subjugation of, by the Russians, 198.
• ——, cruelty of the conquerors, 198.
• Kamchatka, Steller’s scientific journey to, 248.
• ——, its climate and fertility, 254.
• ——, abundance of fish in the rivers, 255.
• ——, bird-catchers of, 255.
• ——, population, 255.
• ——, mountain chain and volcanoes, 256.
• ——, climate and mineral springs, 256.
• ——, harbors and population, 256.
• ——, healthiness of the people, 257.
• ——, their food, 258.
• ——, their animals, 258, 260.
• ——, character of the people, 260, 261.
• Kane, Dr., his Arctic voyages, 365.
• ——, his account of his first winter in Rensselaer Bay, 365.
• ——, his description of the Polar night, 366.
• ——, his sledge journey along the coast of Greenland, 367.
• ——, his illness on the voyage and recovery, 368.
• ——, resolves to winter a second time in Rensselaer Bay, 369.
• ——, departure and return of part of his crew, 369, 370.
• ——, sufferings of his party, 371.
• ——, abandonment of his ship, and boat journey to Upernavik, 371.
• ——, his return to New York, and death, 372.
• Kara Gate, reached by Stephen Burrough, 336.
• Kara, Sea of, 147.
• ——, expeditions to the, 147.
• Kasan, Russian conquest of, 192.
• Kellett, Captain, his search for Franklin, 359.
• Kendall, Lieut., his voyage to the Coppermine river, 349.
• ——, his account of Deception Island, 393.
• Kennedy, William, his search for Franklin, 358.
• ——, his sledge journey with Bellot, 359.
• Kennedy Channel, Dr. Hayes’s sledge journey across, 368.
• ——, his voyage across, 373.
• Kerguelen Land, climate of, 393.
• Khipsack, destruction of the empire of the Khans of, 191.
• King, Captain, his survey of the Magellan Strait, 415.
• King William’s Island, coast of, traced by Mr. Thomas Simpson, 356.
• Klofa jökul, extent of the, 69.
• Knight, John, his melancholy Arctic voyage, 341.
• ——, murdered by the Esquimaux, 342.
• Koldewey, Captain, his journey towards the North Pole, 374.
• Kolwa, Castrén’s visit to, 174.
• Kolyma river, inundations of the, 237.
• Kolymsk, Nishnei, foundation of the town of, 197.
• ——, Wrangell’s visit to, 234.
• ——, situation and climate of, 234.
• ——, vegetable and animal life, 235.
• ——, population of the district, 236.
• ——, dwellings of the Russian residents, 236.
• ——, mode of life of the natives, 236, 237.
• ——, their dogs, 236, 237.
• ——, berry-gathering in the district, 238.
• ——, famine of the people, 238.
• ——, social parties at, 238.
• Koriaks, the, confirmed by the Czar in their possessions, 199.
• Koronnoie Filippowskoi, Von Middendorff’s journey to, 221.
• Kostin Schar, visit of Von Baer to, 152.
• ——, storm in, 152.
• Kötlugja, eruptions of, since the colonization of Iceland, 95, 97.
• Krasnojarsk, Castrén’s visit to, 175, 176.
• ——, extravagance of the gold aristocracy of, 218.
• Krenitzin, his discovery of the peninsula of Aljaska, 202.
• Kresdowosdwishensk, produce of the gold mine of, 218.
• Krisuvik, burning mountains of, 69.
• Krotow, Lieutenant, lost off Nova Zembla, 147.
• Kutchin Indians, their dwelling-place, 331.
• ——, their personal appearance and dress, 331.
• ——, their medium of exchange, 331.
• ——, their women and children, 332.
• ——, their amusements, 332.
• ——, their wars with the Esquimaux, 333.
• ——, their suspicious and timorous lives, 333.
• ——, their mode of pounding the moose-deer, 333.
• ——, their frequent distress, 334.
• ——, their huts, 334.
• Kutchum Khan, his conquest of Siberia, 192.
• ——, defeated by Yermak the robber, at Tobolsk, 193, 194.
• ——, his revenge, 194.
• L.
• Labrador, barren lands of, 22.
• ——, effect of the icy seas and cold currents on the climate of, 22.
• ——, discovered and colonized by Greenlanders, 335.
• Lächow Islands, discovery of the, 202.
• Lagarfliot river, in Iceland, 78.
• Lakes of Newfoundland, 377.
• Lambert, M. Gustave, his opinion as to the route to the Pole, 375.
• Lancaster Sound, discovery of the entrance to, 343.
• Lapps, their history and conversion to Christianity, 156.
• ——, poverty and self-denial of their clergy, 157.
• ——, their ancient gods and present superstitions, 156, 157.
• ——, Evil Spirit of the woods, 157.
• ——, sorcery and witchcraft, 158.
• ——, their personal appearance, 158.
• Lappars, the Fjall, or Mountain Lapps, 159.
• ——, their dwellings, 159.
• ——, their reindeer pens, 160.
• ——, their summer and winter encampments, 161.
• ——, their sledges and skates, 161.
• ——, natural beauties of their country, 162.
• ——, their love of home, 162.
• ——, their mode of hunting the bear and the wolf, 163, 164.
• ——, the wealthy, and their mode of living, 164.
• ——, their annual visits to the fairs, 165.
• ——, their drunkenness, 165.
• ——, their worship of mammon, treasure hoarding, 165.
• ——, their fondness for brandy and tobacco, 165.
• ——, their affectionate disposition, 166.
• ——, the Skogslappars, or Forest Lapps, 166.
• ——, the Fisher, 166.
• Laptew, Lieut. Cheriton, his explorations of the coasts of Taimurland, 200.
• ——, his explorations to the east of the Lena, 200.
• Larch, the, of Siberia, 24.
• ——, of the Hudson’s Bay Territory, 24.
• Lawrence, St., climate and vegetation of the island of, 271.
• Lava streams of Iceland, 69, 77.
• ——, streams of, thrown out by the great eruption of Skaptar Jökul, 95–97.
• Laxaa, or Salmon river, abundance of fish caught in the, 87.
• Leif, the Norwegian jarl, his visit to Iceland, 90.
• ——, murdered by his Irish slaves, 91.
• Lemming, its habitat and food. 42.
• ——, exaggerations of Olaus Magnus and Pontoppidan respecting the, 42.
• ——, its enemies, and accidents to which it is liable, 42.
• ——of New Siberia, 27.
• ——of Nova Zembla, 154.
• Lena river, ascended by the Cossacks, 195.
• ——, importance of the, 17.
• ——, barren grounds near the, 22.
• ——, Wrangell’s journey down the, 233.
• Leprosy, or “likthra,” of Iceland, 110.
• Lichens, gray, of the “barren grounds,” 18.
• ——, food for the reindeer, 27.
• ——, the Lichen rangiferinus, the food of the reindeer, 36.
• ——of Nova Zembla, 153.
• ——of the Pribilow Islands, 271.
• Liddon, Lieut. M., his Arctic voyages, 345.
• Lindenow, Godske, his voyage to Greenland, 383.
• Lion, sea- (Otaria Stelleri), value of the skin of the, 276.
• ——, the sea-, of the Antarctic Ocean, 399.
• Lister, Cape, discovery of, 385.
• Lithuania, the elk of, 39.
• Loaisa, Garcia de, his voyage round the globe, 413.
• Lofoten Islands, the, 125.
• ——, cod-fishery of the, 125, 126.
• Looming objects in the Arctic regions, 55.
• Loschkin, the walrus-hunter, his voyage on the coast of Nova Zembla, 147.
• Löstadius, the Lapp priest, his self-denial and poverty, 157.
• Loucheux. See Kutchin Indians.
• Louis-Philippe Terre, discovery of, 402.
• Lovunnen, puffins of, 125.
• Löwenorn, his voyage to Greenland, 385.
• Lütke, Admiral, his endeavors to penetrate along the coast of Nova Zembla, 147.
• Lychnis, purple, of the Arctic regions, 20.
• Lynx, Canada, or pishu (Lynx Canadensis), 317.
• ——, value of the fur of the, 212, 317.
• Lyon, Captain, his unsuccessful voyage, 348.
• M.
• Mackenzie, Alexander, his voyages of discovery in North America, 308.
• Mackenzie river, importance of the, 17.
• ——, forests and barren lands near the, 22.
• ——, influence of the southerly winds on the temperature of the valley of the, 27.
• ——, discovery of the, 308.
• Maesnikow, Nikita, his gold-fields in Eastern Siberia, 214, 217, 218.
• Magdalena Bay, description of, 133.
• Magellan, Strait of, 408.
• ——, description of the, 408.
• ——, entrances to, 409.
• ——, opening into the Pacific, 411.
• ——, discovery of the, by Magellan, 413.
• ——, Sir J. Narborough’s chart, 414.
• ——, Captains King and Fitzroy’s surveys of, 415.
• Magerö, island of, 129.
• Magicians of the Samoïedes, 180, 181.
• Malewinsky, Lieutenant, his gold mine of Olginsk, 218.
• Maelstrom, the, 126.
• Mammoth, fossil remains of the, in New Siberia, 202.
• Man, his difficulty in establishing a footing in the Arctic regions, 17.
• ——, how he is able to stand the rigors of an Arctic winter, 28.
• Maps of the Esquimaux, 302.
• Mariinsk, station of, built by the Russians, 196.
• ——, gold mine of, 217.
• Marshes of Newfoundland, 377.
• Marten, pine (Martes abietum), the, 316.
• ——, value of the fur of the, 316.
• Mary Minturn river, flowers of, 20.
• Matiuschkin, his sledge journey over the Polar Sea, 241.
• Matoschkin Schar, visits to, 147–152.
• Matthew, St., island of, inhospitable character of the, 271.
• Matthew’s Straits, visited by Rosmysslow, Pachtussow, and Herr von Baer, 147–152.
• McClintock, Lieut. (now Sir Leopold), his search for Franklin, 360.
• ——, his voyage in the “Fox,” and discovery of the fate of Franklin and his companions, 362–364.
• McClure, Captain, his search for Franklin, 359–361.
• ——, his discovery of the north-west passage, 360.
• Mecham, Lieut., his search for Franklin, 360.
• Mediterranean, dried codfish sent to the, 129.
• Medusæ, enormous numbers of, in the Polar world, 59.
• ——, in the seas off Spitzbergen, 133.
• Melville Bay, enormous glaciers of, 49, 50.
• Melville Island, discovery of, 345.
• Mentschikoff, Prince, his exile and death in Siberia, 205.
• ——, his son restored to the honors of his house, 205.
• Mercy Bay, discovery of, 361.
• Mercy, harbor of, 412.
• Middendorff, Von, his adventures in Taimurland, 220.
• ——, his visit to the Chatanga river, 221.
• ——, his journey down the Taimur river to the Polar Sea, 221–223.
• ——, his return journey and illness, 223–225.
• ——, gratitude of the Samoïedes, 224.
• ——, his observations on the climate and natural productions of Taimurland, 225.
• Midnight, silence of, in Spitzbergen, 135.
• Milk of the reindeer, 36.
• Minerals of Iceland, 88.
• Mink (Vison Americanus), value of the fur of the, 316.
• Misery, Mount, 145.
• Mollusca, small, of the Polar Seas, 59.
• Moonlight nights in the Arctic regions, 32, 33.
• Morse. See Walrus.
• Morton, one of Dr. Kane’s crew, his illness, 368.
• ——, his discovery of Washington Land, 369.
• Mosquitoes of Nishne-Kolymsk, 235.
• Mosses, dingy, of the “barren grounds,” 18.
• —— of Nova Zembla, 153.
• —— of the Pribilow Islands, 270, 271.
• Mourawieff, Count Nicholas, his annexation of the Amoor, 196.
• Mouse, field, of Spitzbergen, 137.
• Muchamor, the fungus, used as food by the Kamchatkans, 258.
• Mud-springs, boiling, of Iceland, 70.
• Münich, Marshal, his exile to Siberia, 205.
• ——, his return and subsequent life, 206.
• Munk, Jens, his voyages, 343.
• Munkholm, castle of, 124.
• Murderers, treatment of, in Russia, 206.
• Muscovy Company, its endeavors to discover a north-east passage to India, 336.
• Musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus), description of the, 40.
• ——, its former and present habitat, 40, 41.
• Musquash, musk-rat, or ondatra (Fiber zibethicus), 317.
• ——, villages, 318.
• ——, modes of catching the animal, 318.
• ——, value of the fur of the, 318.
• Mussels on the coast of Greenland, 59.
• Myvatn, ducks of the, 84.
• N.
• Naddodr, the Norwegian pirate, his discovery of Iceland, 89.
• Námar, or boiling mud-springs of Iceland, 70.
• Narborough, Sir John, his chart of the Strait of Magellan, 414.
• Narwhal, or sea-unicorn, domain of the, 60.
• ——, its tusk, 61.
• ——, Greenland fishery of the, 387.
• Narym, Castrén’s visit to, 175.
• Necromancy of the Samoïedes, 180.
• Nertschinsk, treaty of, 196.
• ——, criminals at the mines of, 206.
• Ness, Castrén’s visit to the Samoïede village of, 172.
• Newfoundland, discovered and colonized by Greenlanders, 335.
• ——, its desolate appearance, 376.
• ——, its forests, marshes, and barrens, 376, 377.
• ——, its lakes and ponds, 377, 378.
• ——, its fur-bearing animals, 378.
• ——, its reindeer and wolves, 378.
• ——, its climate and inhabitants, 378.
• ——, its capital, St. John’s, 378, 379.
• ——, history of the island, 379.
• ——, taken possession of by the English, 379.
• ——, right of the French and Americans to fish on the banks of, 379.
• ——, the French town of Placentia, 379.
• ——, the whole island ceded to England, 379.
• ——, importance of the cod-fisheries, 379.
• ——, the great banks of, 380.
• ——, account of the mode of fishing, 380.
• ——, fogs and storms, 380, 381.
• ——, seal-catching, 381.
• Newspapers of Iceland, 110.
• Night of a Polar winter, Kane’s description of, 366.
• Nicolayevsk, station of, built by the Russians, 196.
• Noiba, gold-diggings on the, 216.
• Norfolk Bay, position and fur-trade of, 272.
• North-eastern route to India and China, Sebastian Cabot’s idea of, 335.
• ——, attempts to discover it, 335–337.
• North Pole, the first attempt to sail across the, 342.
• ——, the plan first suggested by Thorne, 342.
• ——, Scoresby’s near approach to the, 344.
• ——, Parry’s boat and sledge journey towards the, 350.
• ——, Dr. Hayes’s opinion as to the practicability of reaching the, across Kennedy Channel, 374.
• North Pole, opinions of other scientific authorities as to the best way to reach, 374.
• North-west passage to India, attempts to discover the, 342, 343.
• ——, M’Clure’s discovery of the, 360.
• —— Company of Canada, formation and trade of the, 307.
• ——, its wars with the Hudson’s Bay Company, and final amalgamation, 308–310.
• Northumberland Sound, temperature of, 28.
• Notothenia, the, of the Antarctic seas, 400.
• Norway, the lemming of the Dovrefjeld, in, 42.
• ——, an absolute monarchy established by Harold Haarfager in, 90.
• ——, causes of the mild climate of the coast of, 121.
• ——, condition of the soil, and of the cultivators of it, 121–123.
• ——, constitution of, and education of the people, 121.
• ——, population of, 121.
• ——, coast scenery of, 123.
• ——, Drontheim and its industry, 124.
• ——, birds of the coast of, 124, 125.
• ——, the herring and cod fisheries of, 125–128.
• Nova Zembla, investigations of the shores of, 147.
• ——, circumnavigated by Pachtussow, 147, 148.
• ——, meteorological observations of Ziwolka, 150.
• ——, the climate of, 151.
• ——, Von Baer’s scientific journey, 151.
• ——, scientific results of his journey, 152, 153.
• ——, vegetation of, 153.
• ——, solitude and silence of, 154.
• ——, rarity of insects in, 154.
• ——, lemmings and foxes of, 154.
• ——, birds of, 154.
• ——, other animals of, 154, 155.
• ——, wintering of the Dutch under Barentz at, 340.
• Novgorod, the Great, subdued by the Czar Ivan I., 191.
• Nowodsikoff, Michael, his discoveries, 201.
• Nudibranchiata, enormous numbers of, in the Polar seas, 59.
• Nullipores on the coast of Greenland, 59.
• Nun, or Jilibeambaertje, the Supreme Being of the Samoïedes, 179.
• O.
• Obdorsk, Castrén’s visit to, 174.
• ——, description of the town, 188.
• ——, the fair at, 189.
• Obi river, importance of, 17.
• ——, barren grounds near the, 22.
• ——, its importance to the Ostiaks, 185.
• ——, Castrén’s journey to the, 174.
• ——, misery caused by the overflow of the, 175.
• ——, inhabitants of the banks of the, 175.
• Ochota river, the, 246.
• Ochotsk, sea of, reached by a party of Cossacks, 195.
• ——, description of the town, 246.
• Olaf Truggeson, King of Norway, sends a missionary to Iceland, 93, 94.
• Olginsk, gold mine of, 218.
• Olonez, number of bears killed for their skins every year in, 212.
• Ommaney, Captain, his search for Franklin, 357.
• ——, his discovery of Franklin’s first winter-quarters, 357.
• Onkilon, or sedentary Tchuktchi, 267.
• ——, their mode of life, 267.
• Oraefa Jökul, height of, 69.
• ——, eruptions of, since the colonization of Iceland, 95.
• Orange Island, visited by Barentz, 339.
• Orc. See Grampus.
• Osborne, Captain Sherard, his opinion as to the method of reaching the North Pole, 374.
• Ostiaks, their fishing-grounds on the Obi, 175.
• ——, their summer huts and mode of life, 185, 186.
• ——, their poverty, 186.
• ——, their winter huts, 186.
• ——, their attachment to their ancient customs, 186, 187.
• ——, their clans, and princes, or chieftains, 187.
• ——, their excellence as archers, 187.
• ——, their personal appearance, and customs, 188.
• ——, annual tribute levied by Yermak, the robber, on them, 194.
• ——, confirmed by the Czar in the possession of their lands, 199.
• Ostrich, Darwin’s, of Patagonia, 420.
• Ostrownoje, town and fair of, 263–265.
• Otter, the sea-, or kalan (Enhydris lutris), value of the fur of the, 211, 212.
• ——, description of, 211.
• ——, chase of the, in Kamchatka, 258.
• —— hunting of the Aleuts, 273.
• Otter, the fish- (Lutra Canadensis), 317.
• ——, fur of the, 317.
• Owl, its favorite food, 43.
• ——, its winter in the highest latitudes, 43.
• Ox, the, in Iceland, 80.
• Oyster, most northerly limit where found, 126.
• P.
• Pachtussow, his circumnavigation of the southern island of Nova Zembla, 148.
• ——, his second voyage and death, 149, 150.
• Pack-ice, 46.
• ——, its tendency to separate in calm weather, 54.
• Paikoff, his discovery of the Fox Islands, 201.
• Parrots of Patagonia, 420.
• Parry, Lieut. W. E. (afterwards Admiral Sir), his Arctic voyages, 344.
• ——, his second voyage, 348.
• ——, his third voyage, 349.
• ——, abandonment of the “Fury,” 349.
• ——, his boat and sledge journey towards the Pole, 350.
• ——, his subsequent career, 351.
• Parry, Mount, discovery of, 369.
• ——, Dr. Hayes’s journey to, 373, 374.
• ——, Mountains, discovery of the, 403.
• Päsina river, scanty population of the, 220.
• Patagonia, Captain Fitzroy’s survey of, 415.
• ——, the people of, 417, 420.
• ——, difference of climate between the east and west, 417.
• ——, aridity of the east of, 417, 418.
• ——, large rivers of, 418.
• ——, animals of, 418, 419.
• ——, introduction of the horse, 424.
• ——, fashions of the Patagonians, 421.
• ——, their religious ideas, 421.
• ——, their superstitions and astronomical knowledge, 422.
• ——, their division into tribes, 422.
• ——, their huts, 422.
• ——, their trading routes, 423.
• Patagonians, their system of government, and great cacique, 423.
• ——, their arms, amusements, and character, 424.
• Paul, St., climate of the island, 271.
• ——, chase of the sea-bear on the, 313.
• Paul the First, discovery of the Island of, 274.
• Pekan, or woodshock (Martes Canadensis), fur of the, 316.
• Penas, gulf of, glacier at the, 394.
• Penguin, the, of the Antarctic seas, 395.
• ——, its food, 397.
• Penny, Master, his search for Franklin, 357, 358.
• Peruvian current, influence of the, 394.
• Petermann, Dr. Augustus, his view of the route to the Pole, 374.
• Petrel, the giant (Procellaria gigantea), of the Antarctic seas, 394.
• Petropavlosk, its population, 257.
• ——, unsuccessful attack of the English and French on, 256.
• Petschora river, 149.
• Philip’s bay, 409.
• Phipps, Captain (afterwards Lord Mulgrave), his voyage to discover the north-west passage, 344.
• Pipit (Anthus pratensis), the, of Iceland, 81.
• Plachina, Castrén’s residence and study at, 176.
• Plover island, discovery of, 360.
• Plovers of Iceland, 81.
• Poland, the elk of, 39, 40.
• Pole, North, probable condition of the land (if any) at the, 27.
• Popow, Fedor, his discovery of the gold fields of Eastern Siberia, 214.
• Population of Norway, 122.
• Potato, cultivation of, in Norway, 124.
• Pribilow Islands, climate of, 271.
• ——, sea-lions and guillemots of, 271.
• ——, chase of the sea-bear, 274.
• Prontschischtschew, his fruitless endeavors to double the capes of Taimurland, 200.
• ——, death of him and his wife, 20.
• Prussia, East, the elk of, 39, 40.
• Ptarmigan (Lagopus albus), its residence in the highest latitudes in winter, 43.
• —— of Spitzbergen, 137.
• ——, its summer visits to Taimurland, 227.
• —— in the Tundra in summer, 19.
• Pteropods, food for the Greenland whale, 60.
• Puffins of Lovunnen island, 125.
• ——, mode of catching them, 125.
• Punta Arenas, colony of Germans at, 416.
• Pustosersk, visit of Castrén to, 171, 173.
• Pym, Lieut., his sledge journey of search for Franklin, 360.
• R.
• Racoon (Procyon lotor), 315, 378.
• ——, value and trade in the skins of the, 316.
• Rae, Dr., his search for Sir John Richardson, 357.
• ——, his discoveries in the Arctic seas, 357.
• ——, his discovery of the fate of Franklin and his crew, 362.
• Raipass, copper mines at, 128.
• Ranunculus, snow (Ranunculus nivalis), of Nova Zembla, 153.
• Rat, musk-. See Musquash.
• Ravens of Iceland, 84.
• ——, in Scandinavian mythology, 84, 85.
• ——, superstitions of the Icelanders respecting the, 85.
• Razor-bill, its nests on the most northern rocks, 67.
• Red-knife Indians, their hunting-grounds, 327.
• Red-pole, the, of Spitzbergen, 137.
• Red river colony, destruction of the, 308.
• Red sharks of Iceland, 81.
• Reindeer, its summer and winter quarters in the Arctic regions, 19.
• ——, food found by the, in Spitzbergen, 27.
• ——, its importance to man in the northern regions, 34.
• ——, its formation and adaptation to the circumstances in which it is placed, 34.
• ——, clattering sound of its feet, 34.
• ——, its antlers, 34.
• ——, its young, 35.
• ——, its milk, 36.
• ——, its food and olfactory powers, 36.
• ——, the caribou of North America, 36.
• ——, its geographical range in the Old and New World, 36.
• ——, its love of a cold climate, 36.
• ——, its services to man, 37.
• ——, its enemies, and disorders to which it is liable, 37, 38.
• ——, a nuisance in Iceland, 81.
• —— of Spitzbergen, 137.
• ——, the, pens of the Lapps, 160.
• ——, milking the, 160.
• ——, the, sledges of the Lapps, 161.
• ——, attempt made to acclimatize the, in Scotland, 162.
• ——, ravages of wolves in herds of, 164.
• ——, rich Lapp owners of herds of, 164.
• ——, Lapp mode of killing the, 164.
• ——, its two annual migrations, 237.
• —— hunts of the Jukahires of the Aniuj, 237, 238.
• —— races of the Tchuktchi, 266.
• —— hunting of the Esquimaux, 295.
• ——, the Kutchin Indian mode of pounding the, 333.
• ——, chase of the, in Greenland, 388.
• Rensselaer bay, temperature of, in mid-winter, 19, 20.
• ——, Kane’s winters at, 365, 369.
• Resanow, Jakin, his gold-fields, 214.
• “Rescue,” wreck of the, 440.
• Reykjahlid, boiling mud-caldrons of, 70.
• Reykjavik, mean annual temperature of, 78.
• ——, the present capital of Iceland, 91.
• ——, account of, 99, 100.
• ——, the annual fair of, 100.
• ——, salary of the bishop of, 106.
• ——, schools and library of, 108, 109.
• ——, the Icelandic Literary Society, 110.
• Rhinoceros remains found on the coast of Northern Siberia, 203.
• Richardson, Dr. (afterwards Sir John), his Arctic land voyages, 346, 349.
• ——, dreadful sufferings of the party, 346, 347.
• ——, his search for Sir John Franklin, 356.
• Rivers discharging their waters into the Polar ocean, 17.
• —— of Iceland, 78.
• Rocky Mountains, the wild sheep of the, 41.
• Roebuck, near Lake Baikal, 40.
• Rorquals, or fin-whales, habitat and size of the, 60.
• ——, their food, 60.
• Rosmysslow, his investigations of the shores of Nova Zembla, 147.
• Ross, Capt. (afterwards Sir John), Arctic voyages of, 344.
• Ross, Sir John, his second journey, 351.
• ——, his five years in the Arctic Ocean, 351–354.
• ——, his return home and honors, 354.
• ——, Sir James, his Arctic voyages, 351.
• ——, his search for Franklin, 357.
• ——, his discoveries in the Antarctic Ocean, 402.
• ——, collision between his ships, the “Erebus” and “Terror,” 405, 406.
• ——, his danger between two icebergs, 406.
• Rum, effects of, on an Iceland clergyman, 101.
• Rupert’s Land, held by the Hudson’s Bay Company, 310.
• Russia, character of the coniferæ of, 23, 24.
• ——, the elk of the woods of the northern parts of, 40.
• ——, conquest of, by the Tartars under Baaty Khan, 191.
• ——, liberated from the Tartar yoke by Ivan I., 191.
• ——, advances of, in Siberia, 195.
• ——, annexes the country of the Amoor, 196.
• ——, condition of the natives under the yoke of, 197, 198.
• ——, exiles from, to Siberia, 204–206.
• ——, value of the skins annually imported by, 212, 213.
• ——, life and dwellings in Nishne-Kolymsk, 236.
• ——, first treaty of commerce between England and, 336.
• ——, Company, patent granted to the, to fish off Greenland, 138.
• Russian Fur Company, account of the, and its trade, 272.
• S.
• Sabine, Mount, discovery of, 402.
• Sable, value of the, to the Cossack conquerors of Siberia, 195.
• ——, importance and beauty of the fur of the, 209.
• ——, hunting, 210.
• Sabrina Land, discovery of, 401, 402.
• Sagamen, or historians, of Iceland, 94.
• Sajan Mountains, Castrén’s journey over the, 177.
• Salmon, Alpine (Salmo alpinus), immense numbers of, in Nova Zembla, 155.
• Salmon, shoals of, in the rivers of the Arctic regions, 19.
• ——, abundance of, in Iceland, 87.
• ——, of the Sea of Ochotsk, 246, 247.
• ——, abundance of, in Kamchatka, 255.
• Samoïedes, European, Castrén’s journey among the, 170.
• ——, their drunkenness, 171.
• ——, their impatience of confinement, 171–173.
• ——, their barbarism, 179.
• ——, their Supreme Being, Num, or Jilibeambaertje, 179.
• ——, their recourse to incantations, 180.
• ——, their idols, 180, 181.
• ——, their reverence paid to the dead, 181.
• ——, their mode of taking an oath, 182.
• ——, their personal appearance and habits, 182.
• ——, their wealth in reindeer, 183, 184.
• ——, their entire number in Europe and Asia, 184.
• ——, their traditions of ancient heroes, 184.
• ——, confirmed by the Czar in their possessions, 199.
• ——, the companions of Von Middendorff on his journey, 221, 225.
• Sämund Frode, his Icelandic works, 94.
• Sand-bee (Andrena) of Nova Zembla, 154.
• Sand-reed bread used in Iceland, 79.
• Sarmiento, Pedro, his voyage, 414.
• Sawina river, 148.
• Saxifragas, the, of the treeless zone, 20.
• Scalds, or bards, of Iceland, 94.
• Scandinavia, character of the coniferæ of, 22.
• Schalaurow, his journeys on the coast of Siberia, 201.
• Scharostin, his residence at Spitzbergen, 142.
• Schelagskoi, Cape, rounded by Count Michael Staduchin, 197.
• ——, reached by Schalaurow, 201.
• Scoresby, Dr., his visit to Spitzbergen, 132.
• ——, Captain, his near approach to the North Pole, 344.
• ——, his voyage to Greenland, 385, 386.
• Scotia, Nova, discovered and colonized by Greenlanders, 335.
• Scurvy in Spitzbergen, 140–142.
• ——, preservative against, 141.
• ——, Lapp mode of preventing the, 166.
• Sea, influence of the, on the severity of the Arctic winter, 27.
• Sea, Antarctic, compared with the Arctic regions, 391.
• ——, absence of vegetation in the, 391.
• ——, causes of the inferiority of the Antarctic climate, 391, 392.
• ——, immensity of the icebergs of the, 392.
• ——, the Peruvian current, 394.
• ——, birds of the coasts, 394.
• ——, cetaceans, 397–399.
• ——, Austral fishes, 400.
• ——, voyages of discovery, 401.
• ——, storms and pack-ice, 404 et seq.
• Seas, Arctic, dangers peculiar to the, 45.
• ——, floating masses of ice, 45, 46.
• ——, ice-blink, 54.
• ——, summer fogs, 54.
• ——, clearness of the atmosphere and apparent nearness of objects, 55.
• ——, phenomena of reflection and refraction of the atmosphere, 55.
• ——, causes which prevent the accumulation of Polar ice, 55–57.
• ——, the animals of the, 40, 43, 44, 59.
• ——, Russian discoveries off the Siberian coast, 201 et seq.
• ——, Von Middendorff’s journey down the Taimur river to the Polar sea, 221.
• ——, Wrangell’s nights on the Polar sea, 239.
• ——, his observations on the Polar sea, 240.
• ——, Matiuschkin’s sledge journey, 241.
• ——, voyages of the English and Dutch, 335 et seq.
• Sea-bear of Bering’s sea, 62.
• Sea-eagles of the coast of Norway, 125.
• Sea-elephant of the Antarctic Ocean. 398, 399.
• Sea-gulls of the coast of Norway, 124, 125.
• Sea-lion of Bering sea, 62.
• —— of the Pribilow Islands, 271.
• Seal-fishing at Spitzbergen, 142.
• —— of Nova Zembla, 155.
• —— hunts of the Esquimaux, 295, 296.
• —— catching at Newfoundland, 381.
• —— hunting on the coasts of Greenland, 384, 446.
• Seals, the, of the Polar seas, 62.
• ——, their uses to man, 62, 446.
• ——, the Antarctic, 399, 400.
• ——, their igloos, 449.
• Sea-otter, value of the skin and former numbers of the, 201, 202.
• Sedger river, romantic scenery of the, 410.
• Semple, Governor, murder of, 308.
• Sertularians on the coasts of Greenland, 59.
• Service-trees in the Arctic regions, 24.
• Shark, basking, on the northern coasts of Iceland, 87.
• ——, its uses to the islanders, 87.
• ——, oil manufactured from its liver, 87.
• ——, the northern (Scymnus microcephalus), abundance of, off Spitzbergen, 137.
• ——, fishery of, on the coast of Greenland, 387.
• Sheep, wild (Ovis montana), of the Rocky Mountains, description of the, 41.
• ——, the, of Iceland, and their enemies, 80.
• ——, mode of sheep-shearing, 80.
• Shetland Islands, New, account of the, 392, 393.
• Shrimps off Spitzbergen, 133.
• Siberia, extent of the treeless zone of, 22.
• ——, character of the coniferæ of, 23, 24.
• ——, the elk of, 39.
• ——, the roebuck and red deer of, 40.
• ——, the argali, or wild sheep of, 41.
• ——, the white dolphin in the rivers of, 61.
• ——, conquest of, by the Cossacks, for the Russians, 193, 194.
• ——, final conquest of, by the Russians, and foundation of Tobolsk, 195 et seq.
• ——, condition of the natives of, under the dominion of Russia, 197, 198.
• ——, scientific expeditions sent to, 200 et seq.
• ——, its past ages, 203.
• ——, its extent and capabilities, 204.
• ——, the exiles sent there, 204–206.
• ——, their condition there, 206.
• ——, condition of the West Siberian peasants, 207, 208.
• ——, resources of the country, 208.
• ——, extremes of heat and cold, 208.
• ——, fur-bearing animals, 209 et seq.
• ——, the gold-fields of Eastern, and the miners, 214–216.
• ——, value of the produce of some of the mines, 217, 218.
• ——, entire value of the produce of gold in 1856 and 1860, 218.
• ——, luxury and extravagance caused by the wealthy gold speculators, 218, 219.
• ——, the gold of the Ural, 219.
• ——, New, lemmings of, 27.
• ——, discovery of the islands of, 201, 202.
• ——, fossil ivory of, 202.
• Sibir, the capital of the Tartars in Siberia, 192.
• ——, taken by Yermak, the robber, for the Czar, 194.
• Simpson, Mr. Thomas, his Arctic land voyage, 355.
• ——, his discoveries, 356.
• ——, assassinated, 356.
• Sirowatsky, his discovery of the Archipelago of New Siberia, 203.
• Skalholt, the ancient capital of Iceland, account of, 98.
• ——, its present condition, 99.
• ——, its meadow lands and scenery, 99.
• Skaptar jökul, 69.
• ——, the great eruption of, in 1783, 95.
• Skates of Lapps, 161.
• Skeidara, Mr. Holland’s journey across the, 111, 112.
• Skjalfandafljot river in Iceland, 78.
• Skogslappar, or Forest Lapps, account of the, 166.
• Sledges of the Lapps, 161.
• ——, the sacred sledge, Hahengau, of the Samoïedes, 180.
• Smith’s Sound, temperature of, 27.
• ——, icebergs formed in, 48.
• ——, discovery of the entrance to, 343, 365.
• “Smoke, valley of,” in Iceland, 70.
• Snorri Sturleson, the Herodotus of the North, account of him and his “Heimskringla,” 94, 95.
• Snow-buntings of the “barren grounds,” 18.
• Snow, its protection of the vegetation of the Arctic regions, 19.
• ——, warmth caused by, 19.
• ——, no land yet found covered to the water’s edge with eternal snow, 27.
• ——, amount of the fall of, in Taimurland, 225, 226.
• ——, probable diminution of the fall of, advancing towards the pole, 226.
• ——, its protection against cold, 226.
• Socialism among the Dog-rib Indians, 329.
• Solfataras of Iceland and Sicily compared, 88.
• Solovetskoi, convent of, 180.
• Sorcery of the Laplanders, 158.
• ——, of the Samoïedes, 180.
• Spain, salted cod-fish imported into, 129.
• Spasy, produce of the gold mine of, 218.
• Spirits, invisible, of the Samoïedes, 180, 181.
• Spitzbergen, flowers of, 20.
• ——, vast fields of ice in the plateau of, 27.
• ——, food of the reindeer of, 27.
• ——, proofs of a former milder climate in, 29, 30.
• ——, birds of, 43, 44.
• ——, apparent nearness of objects at, in clear weather, 54.
• ——, the walrus of the coast of, 64.
• ——, description of the archipelago of, 131, 132.
• ——, the west coast, 132.
• ——, Scoresby’s ascent of a mountain, and excursion along the coast, 132, 133.
• ——, Magdalena bay, 133–136.
• ——, ice-cliffs and avalanches of ice, 135.
• ——, scientific exploring expeditions sent to, 136.
• ——, flora and fauna of, 136, 137.
• ——, fisheries of, 139.
• ——, coal and drift-wood of, 137, 138.
• ——, history of, 138.
• ——, attempts made to colonize it, 139–141.
• ——, Russian hunters’ mode of wintering at, 142.
• ——, walrus and seal-fishing at, 142.
• ——, discovery of, 340.
• Spout, the, of Newfoundland, 376.
• Springs, hot, of Iceland, 70.
• ——, the Geysir, 71.
• ——, the Strokkr, 72.
• Spruce fir of the Hudson’s Bay territory, 24.
• Squirrel, value of the fur of the, 212.
• Stadolski Island, visit of Pachtussow to, 148.
• Staduchin, Count Michael, his foundation of the town of Nishnei-Kolymsk, 196, 197.
• —— navigates the sea eastward of Cape Schelagskoi, 197.
• Stawinen river, 148.
• Steller, G. W., notice of him, 248.
• ——, his scientific journey to Kamchatka, 248.
• ——, ill-treated by Bering, 250.
• ——, his sufferings on Bering’s Island, 251.
• ——, death of his commander, Bering, 252.
• ——, his return to Kamchatka, 252.
• ——, persecuted by the Siberian authorities, 253.
• ——, his death, 253.
• Stockfish of Iceland, 87.
• Storms on the White Sea, 169.
• —— of the Tundras, 172, 173.
• —— of the Arctic zone, 225, 226.
• —— off Newfoundland, 381.
• —— in the Antarctic ocean, 404, 405.
• ——, the williwaws, or hurricane squalls, of the Strait of Magellan, 412.
• Strogonoff, foundation of the Russian family of, 192, 193.
• Strokkr, description of the, 72.
• Strongbow Indians of the Rocky Mountains, the, 327.
• Sukkertoppen, seen by Davis, 337.
• Sulphur of Iceland, 88.
• ——, compared with that of Sicily, 88.
• Summer, the perpetual daylight of, 36.
• ——, fogs of, 54.
• —— in Taimurland, 225.
• Sun, the midnight, effect of, on icebergs, 50–52.
• Sunset, magnificence of a, 32.
• Surgut, Castrén’s visit to, 175.
• Surts-hellir, or caves of Surtur, description of, 77.
• Suslik, the, of Siberia, 212.
• ——, value of its fur, 212.
• Sviatoinoss, Cape, fossil ivory at, 202.
• Sviatoi-noss, doubled by the Russians, 200.
• Swans of Iceland, 81, 84.
• T.
• Tabin, the imaginary Cape, of the Dutch navigators, 339.
• Tadibes, or sorcerers of the Samoïedes, 180.
• ——, their dress and incantations, 180.
• Tagilsk, Nishne, the gold-producing town of, 219.
• Taiga, melancholy character of the, 230.
• ——, gold-fields of the, 213.
• Taimur Lake, visited by Lieut. Laptew, 200.
• ——, storm on the, 223.
• Taimur river, visited by Lieut. Laptew, 200.
• ——, Von Middendorff’s journey to the, 221–223.
• Taimurland, endeavors of Prontschischtschew to double the capes of, 200.
• ——, Middendorff’s adventures in, 220, 221.
• ——, his observations on the climate and natural productions of, 225.
• ——, amount of the fall of snow in, 225, 226.
• Tana river, discovery of the, by Jelissei Busa, 195.
• Tarn Mount, Darwin’s ascent of, 411.
• Tartars, their subjection of the Russians, 191.
• —— driven out by Ivan I., 191.
• —— permanently overthrown by Ivan II., 192.
• Tattooing, Cree Indian mode of, 323.
• Tchendoma, the, visited by Jelissei Busa, 195.
• Tchuktchi, barren grounds in the land of the, 21, 22.
• ——, the land of the, 262.
• ——, pipes of, 264.
• ——, their short summer, 262.
• ——, their independence and commercial enterprise, 263.
• —— ladies, Matiuschkin’s visit to some, 265.
• ——, amusements of the people, 266.
• ——, the wandering and sedentary, 267.
• ——, their mode of life, 267.
• ——, population of the land of the, 267.
• Tea-parties at Nishne-Kolymsk, 238.
• Temperature of Rensselaer bay in mid-winter, 19, 20.
• ——, effect of the sea on, of the Arctic regions, 27.
• Temperature, influence of the winds on, 27.
• ——, former milder, of the Arctic regions, 29.
• ——, probable causes of the changes in the Arctic climate, 29.
• ——, the lowest ever felt by man, 28.
• ——, how man is enabled to bear extraordinary low, 28.
• —— of Iceland at different places, 78.
• Tennyson’s Monument, Dr. Kane’s description of, 367.
• Terror, Mount, 403.
• Terski Lapps, Castrén’s attempted journey to the, 170.
• Thangbrand, Christian missionary to Iceland, 93, 94.
• Thingvalla, plain of, 76.
• ——, site of the ancient Icelandic Althing at, 91, 92.
• ——, pastor of, 104.
• ——, church of, 105.
• Thingvalla Lake, in Iceland, 92.
• Thiorsa river, in Iceland, 78.
• Thorlakson, Jon, the poet of Iceland, account of him and his works, 107.
• Thorne, Robert, his suggestion for sailing across the North Pole, 342.
• Thorwald the traveller, the first Christian Icelander, his career, 92, 93.
• Tides, effect of the, in preventing the accumulation of Polar ice, 57.
• Tinné Indians, defeated by the Crees, 319.
• ——, their retaliation, 320.
• ——, their wars with the Blackfeet, 320.
• ——, their wigwams, or tents, 324.
• ——, various tribes of the, and their range, 327.
• ——, their appearance, manners, and customs, 327–329.
• ——, improvements in their condition, 329, 330.
• ——, their wives and children, 330.
• ——, their cruelty to the aged, 330.
• Tjumen, the first settlement of Russians in Siberia, 195.
• ——, Steller’s grave at, 253.
• Tobacco, fondness of the Lapps for, 165, 167.
• ——, eagerness of the wild tribes of the North for, 264.
• Tobolsk, battle of, 193, 195.
• ——, foundation of the city of, 195.
• ——, condition of the southern part, 207, 208.
• Tolstoi Ness, Castrén’s visit to, 177.
• Tolstych, Adrian, his discoveries, 201.
• Tomsk, criminals of, 206, 207.
• Tornea, reindeer gloves of, 37.
• Torsteinson Jon, the martyr of the Westman Islands, 118.
• Tookoolito, 442, 466.
• Train-oil of Tromsö, 128.
• Transbaikalia, Castrén’s visit to, 177.
• Travelling in Iceland, 110, 111.
• Treeless zone of Europe, Asia, and America, 18–22.
• Treurenberg bay, deer of, 137.
• Trölladyngja, eruptions of, since the colonization of Iceland, 95.
• Tromsö, cod-fishery and cod-liver oil of, 128.
• ——, description of the town and island, 128.
• Tschirigow, his voyages, 201.
• Tucutuco (Ctenomys Magellanica), the, of Patagonia, 419.
• Tundri, or barren grounds of the Arctic regions, 18, 19.
• —— of the European Samoïedes, 171.
• Tundri, storms of the Tundras, 172.
• Tung-ower, or hot spring at Reikholt, in Iceland, 70.
• Tungusi, the, their relationship to the Mantchou, 244.
• ——, their conquests and final subjugation by the Russians, 244.
• ——, their intellectual development, 244.
• ——, their tribes and population, 244.
• ——, their wretchedness, 244.
• ——, their manners and customs, 245.
• Tunguska river, gold-fields of the Upper, 214.
• Turkey-buzzard, the, of Patagonia, 419.
• Turuchansk, Castrén’s visits to, 176, 177.
• Tyndall glacier, enormous size of, 50.
• U.
• Uffliot the Wise, his first code of laws in Iceland, 91.
• Unalaschka, climate of, 269.
• ——, vegetation of, 269, 270.
• ——, people of, 273.
• Union, Cape, Dr. Hayes’s sledge voyage to, 373, 374.
• United States, right of, to fish on the banks of Newfoundland, 379.
• Ural Mountains, Castrén’s passage of the, 174.
• ——, first discovery of gold in the, 214.
• ——, quantity of gold found in the, 219.
• Ustsylmsk, Castrén’s visit to, and ill-treatment at, 173, 174.
• Utzjoki, the pastor of, 169.
• Uusa river, Castrén’s journey up the, 174.
• V.
• Vaage, cod-fishery of, 126.
• ——, ancient importance of, 126.
• Vancouver’s Island, placed under the management of the Hudson’s Bay Company, 310.
• Vapor baths of the Cree Indians, 324.
• Väre, the, of Norway, 124.
• Vegetation, protection afforded by snow to, 19.
• ——, distinctive characters of the Arctic forests, 22–24.
• —— of the “barren grounds,” 18, 21, 22.
• ——, length of time necessary for the formation of even small stems of trees in the Arctic regions, 25.
• ——, harmless character of the Arctic plants, 25.
• ——, no land yet discovered in which it is entirely subdued by winter, 27.
• ——, former, of the northern regions of the globe, 29.
• —— of Spitzbergen, 136.
• —— of Nova Zembla, 152.
• —— of Taimurland, 226.
• —— of Kamchatka, 254.
• —— of the Bay of Awatscha, 256.
• —— of the Pribilow Islands, 271.
• —— of Newfoundland, 376.
• —— of Greenland, 388.
• ——, absence of, in the Antarctic regions, 391.
• —— of Port Famine, 410.
• Verchnei Ostrog, in Kamchatka, built, 198.
• Verazzani, his voyages, 335.
• Vestfjord, cod-fishery of the, 126.
• Victoria Land, discovery of, 402.
• Videy, eider-ducks of, 81, 82.
• Vigr, eider-ducks of, 83.
• ——, Mr. Shepherd’s visit to, 83, 84.
• Vikings, their courage and discoveries, 89.
• Virgins, Cape, 409.
• Vogelsang, deer of, 137.
• Volcanic eruptions in Iceland since its colonization, 95.
• Volcanoes giving birth to Iceland, 68.
• ——, those now existing there, 69.
• ——, the Esk, on Jan Meyen, 146.
• ——, of Kamchatka, 256.
• ——, eruption of Mount Erebus, 403.
• Vole, field (Arvicola œconomus), indigenous to Iceland, 80.
• Voyageur, the, of North America, 304.
• ——, his life and character, 304, 305.
• W.
• Walrus, or morse (Trichechus rosmarus), description of the, 62–64.
• ——, its affectionate temper, 64.
• ——, its parental love, 64.
• ——, its chief resorts and food, 64.
• —— fishing at Spitzbergen, 144.
• —— hunted on Bear Island, 144.
• —— of Nova Zembla, 155.
• —— hunting on the coast of Aliaska, 275.
• ——, pieces of skin of, a medium of exchange, 276.
• ——, Esquimaux mode of hunting it, 298.
• Washington Land, discovery of, 369.
• ——, Dr. Hayes’s journey to, 373.
• Wassiljew, his visit to the Lena, 195.
• Waygatz, island of, the sacred island of the Samoïedes 180.
• Weasel, the Siberian (Viverra Siberica), the fur of, 211.
• Weddell, Captain, his Antarctic voyages, 401.
• Welden, his visit to Bear Island, 144.
• Wellington Channel, temperature of, 28.
• ——, discovery of, 345.
• Wenjamin, the Archimandrite, 170.
• Western, Thomas, preaches Christianity to the Lapps, 156.
• Westman Islands, description of the, 114.
• ——, difficulty of access of the, 114.
• ——, how they became colonized, 115.
• ——, Heimaey, or Home Island, 116.
• ——, food and trade of the people, 117.
• ——, population and mortality of the children, 118.
• ——, their sufferings from pirates, 118, 119.
• Weymouth, his voyage to Hudson’s Bay, 341.
• Whale, the Greenland (Balæna mysticetus), or smooth-back, 60.
• —— off Nova Zembla, 155.
• ——, the white, or beluga, 61.
• ——, the “ca’ing,” 62.
• ——, a stranded, at Spitzbergen, 133.
• ——, the fin-back, 59, 60.
• —— of Spitzbergen, 137.
• —— off Nova Zembla, 155.
• ——, smooth-backed, of the Antarctic seas, 397.
• ——, sperm, of the Antarctic Ocean, 398.
• Whalers, their dangers, in the Arctic seas, 48.
• ——, depressing effect of the summer fogs, 54.
• ——, their operations in the Polar seas, 59.
• ——, whale chases of the Aleuts, 275.
• ——, whale-hunts of the Esquimaux, 295.
• ——, abundance of whales in the Antarctic seas, 397.
• ——, battle between a whale and a grampus, 398.
• Whale Sound, enormous glaciers of, 50.
• White-fish, or Coregonus, of North America, 310, 311.
• White Sea, Castrén’s journey to the, 170.
• ——, Chancellor’s discovery of the passage from England to the, 192.
• ——, an English expedition in the, 336.
• Whymper, Frederick, travels in Alaska, 277–289.
• Wilkes, Captain, his discoveries in the Antarctic Ocean, 402.
• Wilkes’s Land, discovery of, 402.
• Williwaws of the Strait of Magellan, 412.
• Willoughby, Sir Hugh, his voyage and death, 336.
• Willow, polar (Salix polaris), of Nova Zembla, 153.
• ——, dwarf, of the treeless zone, 21.
• ——, dwarf, on the shores of the rivers and lakes, 24.
• Wind-hole Strait of the Dutch navigators, 339.
• Winds, effects of the cold sea-winds on vegetation, 22.
• ——, influence of the, on an Arctic climate, 27.
• Winter Harbor, Parry’s winter in, 345.
• Winteria aromatica, the, 410.
• Witchcraft and witches of the Laplanders, 158.
• Wolf, its attack of the reindeer, 37, 38.
• ——, Lapp mode of hunting the, 164.
• —— in Newfoundland, 378.
• Wolverine. See Glutton.
• ——, fur of the, 316.
• Wood, length of time necessary for the formation of, in the Arctic regions, 25.
• Woman, dying, abandoned, 462.
• Wrangell, Lieut. von, his services as an Arctic explorer, 233.
• Wrangell, his journey to the shores of the Polar sea, 234.
• ——, his winters at Kolymsk, 238.
• ——, his night on the Polar sea, 239.
• ——, his danger, and return to St. Petersburg, 241–243.
• Wrestling for a wife among the Tinné Indians, 330;
• and among the Kutchin Indians, 332.
• Y.
• Yenisei river, importance of, 17.
• Yermak Timodajeff, the Cossack robber, 192.
• ——, his conquest of Siberia and death, 194.
• ——, his monument in Tobolsk, 194, 195.
• York roads, beauty of, 412.
• Yukon river, 278–289.
• ——, ice in, 283.
• Yukon, fort, 284.
• Z.
• Zembla, Nova, vast ice-fields of, 27.
• ——, mean temperature of, in summer and winter, 27.
• ——, the narwhal of the seas of, 60.
• ——, the walruses of the coasts of, 64.
• Zinzendorf, Count, his interest in Greenland, 384.
• Ziwolka, the Russian steersman, his voyages, 149, 150.
• ——, his meteorological observations, 150.