ʿĪDU ʾL-FIT̤R (عـيـد الـفـطر‎). Lit. “The Festival of the Breaking of the Fast.” It is called also ʿĪdu Ramaẓān, the ʿĪdu ʾṣ-Ṣadaqah (Feast of Alms), and the ʿĪdu ʾṣ-ṣag͟hīr (Minor Festival). It commences as soon as the month’s fast in Ramaẓān is over, and consequently on the first day of the month of Shawwāl. It is specially a feast of alms-giving. “Bring out your alms,” said Ibn ʿAbbās, “for the Prophet has ordained this as a divine institution, one Ṣāʿ of barley or dates, or a half Ṣāʿ of wheat: this is for every person, free or bond, man or woman, old or young, to purify thy fast (i.e. the month’s fast just concluded) of any obscene language, and to give victuals to the poor.” (Mishkāt, book vi. ch. iii.)

On this festival the people, having previously distributed the alms which are called the Ṣadaqatu ʾl-Fit̤r, assemble in the vast assembly outside the city in the ʿĪdgāh, and, being led by the Imām, recite two rakʿahs of prayer. After prayers the Imām ascends the mimbar, or pulpit, and delivers the k͟hut̤bah, or oration. We are indebted to Mr. Sell for the following specimen of one of these sermons:—

“In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.

“Holy is God who has opened the door of mercy for those who fast, and in mercy and kindness has granted them the right of entrance into heaven. God is greater than all. There is no God save Him. God is great! God is great! and worthy of praise. It is of His grace and favour that He rewards those who keep the fast. He has said: ‘I will give in the future world houses and palaces, and many excellent blessings to those who fast.’ God is great! God is great! Holy is He who certainly sent the Qurʾān to our Prophet in the month of Ramaẓān, and who sends angels to grant peace to all true believers. God is great! and worthy of all praise. We praise and thank Him for the ʿĪdu ʾl-Fit̤r, that great blessing; and we testify that beside Him there is no God. He is alone. He has no partner. This witness which we give to His Unity will be a cause of our safety here, and finally gain us an entrance to Paradise. Muḥammad (on whom be the mercy and peace of God) and all famous prophets are His slaves. He is the Lord of genii and of men. From Him comes mercy and peace upon Muḥammad and his family, so long as the world shall last. God is greater than all. There is none beside Him. God is great! God is great! and worthy of all praise. O company of Believers, O congregation of Muslims, the mercy of the True One is on you. He says that this Feast day is a blessing to you, and a curse to the unbelievers. Your fasting will not be rewarded, and your prayers will be stayed in their flight to heaven until you have given the ṣadaqah. O congregation of Believers, to give alms is to you a wājib duty. Give to the poor some measures of grain or its money equivalent. Your duty in Ramaẓān was to say the Tarāwīḥ prayers, to make supplication to God, to sit and meditate (iʿtikāf) and to read the Qurʾān. The religious duties of the first ten days of Ramaẓān gain the mercy of God, those of the second ten merit His pardon; whilst those of the last ten save those who do them from the punishment of hell. God has declared that Ramaẓān is a noble month, for is not one of its nights, the Lailatu ʾl-Qadr, better than a thousand months? On that night Gabriel and the angels descended from heaven: till the morning breaks it is full of blessing. Its eloquent interpreter, and its clearest proof is the Qurʾān, the Word of God, most Gracious. Holy is God who says in the Qurʾān: ‘This is a guide for men, a distinguisher between right and wrong.’ O Believers, in such a month be present, obey the order of your God, and fast; but let the sick and the travellers substitute some other days on which to fast, so that no days be lost, and say: ‘God is great!’ and praise Him. God has made the fast easy for you. O Believers, God will bless you and us by the grace of the Holy Qurʾān. Every verse of it is a benefit to us and fills us with wisdom. God is the Bestower, the Holy King, the Munificent, the Kind, the Nourisher, the Merciful, the Clement.”

The K͟hut̤bah being ended, the whole congregation raise their hands and offer a munājāt for the remission of sins, the recovery of the sick, increase of rain, abundance of corn, preservation from misfortune, and freedom from debt. The Imām then descends to the ground, and makes further supplication for the people, the congregation saying “Amīn” at the end of each supplication. At the close of the service the members of the congregation salute and embrace each other, and offer mutual congratulations, and then return to their homes, and spend the rest of the day in feasting and merriment.

Mrs. Meer Hasan Ali, in her Observations on the Musalmans of India, says:—

“The assemblies of the ladies on this festival are marked by all the amusements and indulgences they can possibly invent or enjoy in their secluded state. Some receiving, others paying visits in covered conveyances; all doing honour to the day by wearing their best jewellery and most splendid dress. The Zanānah rings with festive songs and loud music, the cheerful meeting of friends, the distribution of presents to dependants, and remembrances to the poor; all is life and joy, cheerful bustle and amusement, on this happy day of festival, when the good lady of the mansion sits in state to receive presents from inferiors and to grant proofs of her favour to others.”

Mr. Lane, in his Modern Egyptians, vol. ii. p. 238, thus describes the ʿĪdu ʾl-Fit̤r, as kept in Egypt:—

“Soon after sunrise on the first day, the people having all dressed in new, or in their best clothes, the men assemble in the mosques, and perform the prayers of two rekʾahs, a Soonneh ordinance of the ʾeed; after which, the Khateeb delivers an exhortation. Friends, meeting in the mosque, or in the street, or in each other’s houses, congratulate and embrace and kiss each other. They generally visit each other for this purpose. Some, even of the lower classes, dress themselves entirely in a new suit of clothes, and almost everyone wears something new, if it be only a pair of shoes. The servant is presented with at least one new article of clothing by the master, and receives a few piasters from each of his master’s friends, if they visit the house; or even goes to those friends to congratulate them, and receives his present; if he have served a former master, he also visits him, and is in like manner rewarded for his trouble; and sometimes he brings a present of a dish of sweet cakes, and obtains, in return, money of twice the value, or more. On the days of this ʾeed, most of the people of Cairo eat salted fish, and thin, folded pancakes, and a kind of bun. Some families also prepare a dish consisting of stewed meat, with onions, and a quantity of treacle, vinegar, and coarse flour; and the master usually procures dried fruits, such as nuts, raisins, &c., for his family. Most of the shops in the metropolis are closed, except those at which eatables and sherbet are sold; but the streets present a gay appearance, from the crowds of passengers in their holiday clothes.

“On one or more days of this festival, some or all of the members of most families, but chiefly the women, visit the tombs of their relatives. This they also do on the occasion of the other grand festival. [ʿIDU ʾL-AZHA.] The visitors, or their servants, carry palm branches, and sometimes sweet basil, to lay upon the tomb which they go to visit. The palm-branch is broken into several pieces, and these, or the leaves only, are placed on the tomb.

“Numerous groups of women are seen on these occasions, bearing palm-branches, on their way to the cemeteries in the neighbourhood of the metropolis. They are also provided, according to their circumstances, with cakes, bread, dates, or some other kind of food, to distribute to the poor who resort to the burial-ground on these days. Sometimes tents are pitched for them; the tents surround the tomb which is the object of the visit. The visitors recite the Fatʾhhah, or, if they can afford it, employ a person to recite first the Soorat Yaʾ-Seen, or a larger portion of the Qurān. Often a khutmeh (or recital of the whole of the Qurān) is performed at the tomb, or in the house, by several fickees. Then men generally return immediately after these rites have been performed, and the fragments or leaves of the palm-branch laid on the tomb: the women usually go to the tomb early in the morning, and do not return until the afternoon; some of them (but these are not generally esteemed women of correct conduct), if they have a tent, pass the night in it, and remain until the end of the festival, or until the afternoon of the following Friday; so, too, do the women of a family possessed of a private, enclosed burial-ground, with a house within it, for there are many such enclosures, and not a few with houses for the accommodation of the females in the midst of the public cemeteries of Cairo. Intrigues are said to be not uncommon with the females who spend the night in tents among the tombs. The great cemetery of Báb en-Nusr, in the desert tract immediately on the north of the metropolis, presents a remarkable scene on the two ʾeeds. In a part next the city-gate from which the burial-ground takes its name, many swings and whirligigs are erected, and several large tents, in some of which dancers, reciters of Aboo-Zeyd, and other performers, amuse a dense crowd of spectators; and throughout the burial-ground are seen numerous tents for the reception of the visitors of the tombs. About two or three days after the ʾeed above described, the ‘Kisweh,’ or covering of the Káabeh, which is sent annually with the great caravan of pilgrims, is conveyed in procession from the citadel of the metropolis, where it is manufactured at the Sooltán’s expense, to the mosque of the Hhasaneyn, to be sewed together and lined, preparatively to the approaching pilgrimage.” [KISWAH.]

The visiting of tombs on the occasion of the two festivals is not a custom in India. It is generally done in the Muḥarram, both by the Sunnīs and the Shīʿahs.

ʿIFFAH (عفة‎). “Chastity, continence, purity.” Ahlu ʿiffah, “those who are chaste.”

ʿIFRĪT (عفريت‎). A demon, or class of demons, mentioned in the Qurʾān (Sūrah xxvii. 39). They are said to be giants, and very malicious. The ghosts of the wicked dead are sometimes called by this name. [GENII.]

IFT̤ĀR (افطار‎). Lit. “Breaking.” Breaking the month’s fast on the evening of the ʿĪdu ʾl-Fit̤r, that is, at the first sight of the new moon, after sunset. It is also used for breaking the fast every evening after sunset during the month of Ramaẓān. It is, according to the example of the Prophet, to break the fast by eating either dates or salt.

IḤDĀD (احداد‎). The period of mourning observed by a widow for her husband, namely, four months and ten days. [MOURNING.]

IHLĀL (اهلال‎). Lit. “Raising the voice.” A term used for the Talbiyah. [TALBIYAH.]

IḤRĀM (احرام‎). Lit. “Prohibiting.” The pilgrim’s dress, and also the state in which the pilgrim is held to be from the time he assumes this distinctive garb until he lays it aside. It consists of two new white cotton cloths, each six feet long by three and a half broad. One of these sheets, termed ridāʾ is thrown over the back, and, exposing the arm and shoulder, is knotted at the right side in the style called wīshaḥ. The other, called izār, is wrapped round the loins from the waist to the knee, and knotted or tucked in at the middle.

In the state of iḥrām, the pilgrim is forbidden the following actions: connection with or kissing women, covering the face, perfumes, hunting or slaying animals, anointing the head with oil, cutting the beard or shaving the head, colouring the clothes, washing the head or beard with marsh mallows, cutting the nails, plucking a blade of grass, cutting a green tree. But although the pilgrim is not allowed to hunt or slay animals, he may kill the following noxious creatures: a lion, a biting dog, a snake or scorpion, a crow, a kite, and a rat. For each offence against the rules of iḥrām, special sacrifices are ordained, according to the offence. [HAJJ.]

IḤSĀN (احسان‎). Lit. “To confer favours, or to perform an action in a perfect manner.” A term used in the Traditions for the sincere worship of God. Muḥammad said Iḥsān was “both to worship God as if thou sawest Him, and to remember that God seest thee.” (Mishkāt, book i. ch. i. pt. 1.) The word is used in this sense by the Ṣūfī mystics. (ʿAbdu ʾr-Razzāq’s Dict. of Ṣūfī Terms.)

IḤṢĀN (احصان‎). Lit. “Keeping a wife secluded.” A legal term for a married man. (Hidāyah, vol. ii. p. 49.)

IḤṢĀRU ʾL-ḤAJJ (احصار الحج‎). The hindering of the Pilgrimage. For example: If a pilgrim be stopped on his way by any unforeseen circumstance, such as sickness or accident, he is required to send an animal to be sacrificed at the Sacred City. (Hidāyah, Arabic ed., vol. i. p. 184.) This injunction is founded upon the teaching of the Qurʾān, Sūrah ii. 192: “And if he be prevented, then send whatever offering shall be easiest: and shave not your heads until the offering reach the place of sacrifice. But whoever among you is sick, or hath an ailment of the head, must expiate by fasting, or alms, or a victim for sacrifice. And when ye are secure (from hindrances) then he who delights in the visitation (ʿUmrah) of the holy place until the Pilgrimage, shall bring whatever offering shall be the easiest. But he who hath nothing to offer shall fast three days in the Pilgrimage and seven days when ye return: they shall be ten days in all.”

IḤTIKĀR (احتكار‎). Hoarding up grain with the object of raising the price. Used for monopoly of all kinds. Abū Ḥanīfah restricts its use to a monopoly of the necessaries of life. It is strictly forbidden by Muḥammad, who is related to have said: “Whoever monopoliseth is a sinner”; “Those who bring grain to a city to sell at a cheap rate are blessed, and they who keep it back in order to sell at a high rate are cursed.” (Mishkāt, book xii. ch. viii.)

IḤTILAM (احتلام‎). Pollutio nocturna; after which g͟husl, or legal bathing, is absolutely necessary. [PURIFICATION.]

IHTIMĀM (اهتمام‎). “Superintendence; care.” The trust or jurisdiction of a landowner over certain portions of land.

IḤYĀʾU ʾL-MAWĀT (احياء الموات‎). Lit. “The revival of dead lands.” A legal term for the cultivation of wastes.

IḤẒĀR (احضار‎). A summons citing to appear before a Qāẓī or Judge.

ĪJĀB (ايجاب‎). The first proposal made by one of the parties in negociating or concluding a bargain. [MARRIAGE.]

IJĀRAH (اجارة‎). Price, hire, wages, rent, profit, emolument, according to the subject to which it applies. [HIRE.]

IJMĀʿ (اجماع‎). The third foundation of Islām. It literally means “collecting,” or “assembling,” and in Muslim divinity it expresses the unanimous consent of the Mujtahidūn (learned doctors); or, as we should call it, “the unanimous consent of the Fathers.” A Mujtahid is a Muslim divine of the highest degree of learning, a title usually conferred by Muslim rulers. [MUJTAHID.] There are three foundations of Ijmāʿ: (1) Ittifāq-i-Qaulī, unanimous consent expressed in declaration of opinion; (2) Ittifāq-i-Fiʿlī expressed in unanimity of practice; (3) Ittifāq-i-Sakūtī, when the majority of the Mujtahidūn signified their tacit assent to the opinions of the minority by “silence” or non-interference.

The Mujtahidūn capable of making Ijmāʿ must be “men of learning and piety, not heretics, nor fools, but men of judgment.”

There is great diversity of opinion as to up to what period in the history of Islām Ijmāʿ can be accepted. Some doctors assert that only the Ijmāʿ of the Mujtahidūn who were Aṣḥāb (companions); others, that of those who were not only “companions” but “descendants” of the “Prophet,” can be accepted; whilst others accept the Ijmāʿ of the Anṣārs (helpers), and of the Muhājirūn (fugitives), who were dwellers in al-Madīnah with Muḥammad. The majority of learned Muslim divines, however, appear to think that Ijmāʿ may be collected in every age, although they admit that, owing to the numerous divisions which have arisen amongst Muḥammadans, it has not been possible since the days of the Tabaʿu ʾt-Tābiʿīn (i.e. the followers of the followers of the Companions).

The following is considered to be the relative value of Ijmāʿ:—

That of the Aṣḥāb (companions) is equal to Ḥadīs̤ Mutawātir. That which was decided afterwards, but in accordance with the unanimous opinion of the Aṣḥāb, is equal to Ḥadīs̤-i-K͟habar-i-Mashhūr, and that upon which there was diversity of opinion amongst the Aṣḥāb, but has since been decided by the later Mujtahidūn is equal to Ḥadīs̤-i-K͟habar-i-Wāḥid. (See Syud Ahmad Khan’s Essay.)

Some European writers confuse the term Ijmāʿ with Ijtihād. But Ijtihād is the deduction made by a single Mujtahid, whilst Ijmāʿ is the collective opinion of a council of Mujtahidūn, or enlightened doctors.

Amongst the Shīʿahs there are still Mujtahidūn whose Ijmāʿ is accepted, but the Sunnīs have four orthodox schools of interpretation, named after their respective founders—Ḥanafī, Shāfaʿī, Malakī, and Ḥanbalī. The Wahhābīs for the most part reject Ijmāʿ collected after the death of “the Companions.”

It will be easily understood what a fruitful source of religious dissension and sectarian strife this third foundation of the rule of faith is. Divided as the Christian Church is by its numerous sects, it will compare favourably with Muḥammadanism even in this respect. Muḥammad, it is related, prophesied that, as the Jewish Church had been divided into seventy-one sects! and the Christians into seventy-two! so his followers would be divided into seventy-three sects! But every Muslim historian is obliged to admit that they have far exceeded the limits of Muḥammad’s prophecy; for, according to ʿAbdu ʾl-Qādir al-Jīlānī, there are at least 150.

IJTIHĀD (اجتهاد‎). Lit. “Exertion.” The logical deduction on a legal or theological question by a Mujtahid or learned and enlightened doctor, as distinguished from Ijmāʿ, which is the collective opinion of a council of divines.

This method of attaining to a certain degree of authority in searching into the principles of jurisprudence is sanctioned by the Traditions:—

“The Prophet wished to send a man named Muʿāẕ to al-Yaman to receive some money collected for alms, which he was then to distribute to the poor. On appointing him he said: ‘O Muʿāẕ, by what rule will you act?’ He replied, ‘By the Law of the Qurʾān.’ ‘But if you find no direction therein?’ ‘Then I will act according to the Sunnah of the Prophet.’ ‘But what if that fails?’ ‘Then I will make an Ijtihād, and act on that.’ The Prophet raised his hands and said, ‘Praise be to God who guides the messenger of His Prophet in what He pleases.’ ”

The growth of this system of divinity is traced by a Sunnī writer, Mirza Qāṣim Beg, Professor in the University of St. Petersburg (extracts from which are given in Sell’s Faith of Islām), as follows:—

1. God, the only legislator, has shown the way of felicity to the people whom He has chosen, and in order to enable them to walk in that way He has shown to them the precepts which are found partly in the eternal Qurʾān, and partly in the sayings of the Prophet transmitted to posterity by the Companions and preserved in the Sunnah. That way is called the Sharīʿah (law). The rules thereof are called Aḥkām (commandments).

2. The Qurʾān and the Sunnah, which since their manifestation are the primitive sources of the orders of the Law, form two branches of study, viz. ʿIlm-i-Tafsīr, or the interpretation of the Qurʾān, and ʿIlm-i-Ḥadīs̤, or the study of Tradition.

3. All the orders of the Law have regard either to the actions (Dīn), or to the belief (Īmān) of the faithful (Mukallif).

4. As the Qurʾān and the Sunnah are the principal sources from whence the precepts of the Sharīʿah have been drawn, so the rules recognised as the principal elements of actual jurisprudence are the subject of ʿIlm-i-Fiqh, or the science of Law.

Fiqh in its root signifies “conception, comprehension.” Thus Muḥammad prayed for Ibn Masʿūd: “May God make him comprehend (Faqqaha-hu), and make him know the interpretation of the Qurʾān.” Muḥammad in his quality of Judge and chief of the Believers decided, without appeal or contradiction, all the affairs of the people. His sayings served as a guide to the Companions. After the death of the Prophet the first K͟halīfahs acted on the authority of the Traditions. Meanwhile the Qurʾān and the Sunnah, the principal elements of religion and legislation, became little by little the subject of controversy. It was then that men applied themselves vigorously to the task of learning by heart the Qurʾān and the Traditions, and then that jurisprudence became a separate science. No science had as yet been systematically taught, and the early Musalmāns did not possess books which would serve for such teaching. A change soon, however, took place. In the year in which the great jurisconsult of Syria died (A.H. 80), Nuʿmān ibn S̤ābit, surnamed Abū Ḥanīfah, was born. He is the most celebrated of the founders of the schools of jurisprudence, a science which ranks first in all Muslim seats of learning. Until that time and for thirty years later the learned doctors had all their knowledge by heart, and those who possessed good memories were highly esteemed. Many of them knew by heart the whole Qurʾān with the comments made on it by the Prophet and by the Companions; they also knew the Traditions and their explanations, and all the commands which proceed from the Qurʾān and the Sunnah. Such men enjoyed the right of Mujtahidūn. They transmitted their knowledge to their scholars orally. It was not till towards the middle of the second century of the Hijrah that treatises on the different branches of the Law were written, after which six schools (Maẕhabs) of jurisprudence were formed. The founders (all Imāms of the first class) were Abū Ḥanīfah, the Imāmu ʾl-Aʿz̤am or greatest Imām (A.H. 150), Sufyān as̤-S̤aurī (A.H. 161), Mālik (A.H. 179), ash-Shāfiʿī (A.H. 204), Ibn Ḥanbal (A.H. 241), and the Imām Dāwūd az̤-Z̤āhirī (A.H. 270). The two sects founded by as̤-S̤aurī and az̤-Z̤āhirī became extinct in the eighth century of the Hijrah. The other four still remain. These men venerated one another. The younger ones speak with great respect of the elder. Thus ash-Shāfiʿī says: “No one in the world was so well versed in jurisprudence as Abū Ḥanīfah was, and he who has read neither his works nor those of his disciples knows nothing of jurisprudence.” Ibn Ḥanbal, when sick, wore a shirt which had belonged to ash-Shāfiʿī, in order that he might be cured of his malady; but all this did not prevent them starting schools of their own, for the right of Ijtihād is granted to those who are real Mujtahidūn.

There are three degrees of Ijtihād:

1. Ijtihād fī ʾsh-Sharʿ, absolute independence in legislation.

2. Ijtihād fī ʾl-Maẕhab, authority in the judicial systems founded by the Mujtahidūn of the first class.

3. Ijtihād fī ʾl-Masāʾil, authority in cases which have not been decided by the authors of the four systems of jurisprudence.

The first is called a complete and absolute authority, the second relative, the third special.

(1) Ijtihād fī ʾsh-Sharʿ.

Absolute independence in legislation is the gift of God. He to whom it is given when seeking to discover the meaning of the Divine Law is not bound to follow any other teacher. He can use his own judgment. This gift was bestowed on the jurisconsults of the first, and to some of the second and third centuries. The Companions, however, who were closely connected with the Prophet, having transmitted immediately to their posterity the treasures of legislation, are looked upon as Mujtahidūn of much higher authority than those of the second and third centuries. Thus Abū Ḥanīfah says: “That which comes to us from the Companions is on our head and eyes (i.e. to be received with respect): as to that which comes from the Tābiʿūn, they are men and we are men.”

Since the time of the Tābiʿūn this degree of Mujtahid has only been conferred on the six great Imāms before mentioned. Theoretically any Muslim can attain to this degree, but it is one of the principles of jurisprudence that the confirmation of this rank is dependent on many conditions, and so no one now gains the honour. These conditions are:—

1. The knowledge of the Qurʾān and all that is related to it; that is to say, a complete knowledge of Arabic literature, a profound acquaintance with the orders of the Qurʾān and all their sub-divisions, their relationship to each other and their connection with the orders of the Sunnah. The candidate should know when and why each verse of the Qurʾān was written, he should have a perfect acquaintance with the literal meaning of the words, the speciality or generality of each clause, the abrogating and abrogated sentences. He should be able to make clear the meaning of the “obscure” passages (Mutashābih), to discriminate between the literal and the allegorical, the universal and the particular.

2. He must know the Qurʾān by heart with all the Traditions and explanations.

3. He must have a perfect knowledge of the Traditions, or at least of three thousand of them.

He must know their source, history, object, and their connection with the laws of the Qurʾān. He should know by heart the most important Traditions.

4. A pious and austere life.

5. A profound knowledge of all the sciences of the Law.

Should anyone now aspire to such a degree another condition would be added, viz.:—

6. A complete knowledge of the four schools of jurisprudence.

The obstacles, then, are almost insurmountable. On the one hand, there is the severity of the ʿUlamāʾ, which requires from the candidate things almost impossible; on the other, there is the attachment of the ʿUlamāʾ to their own Imāms, for should such a man arise no one is bound now to listen to him. The Imām Ibn Ḥanbal said: “Draw your knowledge from whence the Imāms drew theirs, and do not content yourself with following others, for that is certainly blindness of sight.” Thus the schools of the four Imāms remain intact after a thousand years have passed, and so the ʿUlamāʾ recognise since the time of these Imāms no Mujtahid of the first degree. Ibn Ḥanbal was the last.

The rights of the man who attained to this degree were very important. He was not bound to be a disciple of another, he was a mediator between the Law and his followers, for whom he established a system of legislation, without anyone having the right to make any objection. He had the right to explain the Qurʾān, the Sunnah, and the Ijmāʿ, according as he understood them. He used the Prophet’s words, whilst his disciples only used his. Should a disciple find some discrepancy between a decision of his own Imām and the Qurʾān or Traditions, he must abide by the decision of the Imām. The Law does not permit him to interpret after his own fashion. When once the disciple has entered the sect of one Imām he cannot leave it and join another. He loses the right of private judgment, for only a Mujtahid of the first class can dispute the decision of one of the Imāms. Theoretically, such Mujtahidūn may still arise; but, as we have already shown, practically they do not.

(2.) Ijtihād fī ʾl-Maẕhab.

This degree has been granted to the immediate disciples of the great Imāms who have elaborated the systems of their masters. They enjoyed the special consideration of the contemporary ʿUlamāʾ, and of their respective Imāms who in some cases have allowed them to retain their own opinion. The most famous of these men are the two disciples of Abū Ḥanīfah, Abū Yūsuf, and Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥasan. In a secondary matter their opinion carries great weight. It is laid down as a rule that a Muftī may follow the unanimous opinion of these two even when it goes against that of Abū Ḥanīfah.

(3.) Ijtihād fī ʾl-Masāʾil.

This is the degree of special independence. The candidates for it should have a perfect knowledge of all the branches of jurisprudence according to the four schools of the Arabic language and literature. They can solve cases which come before them, giving reasons for their judgment, or decide on cases which have not been settled by previous Mujtahidūn; but in either case their decisions must always be in absolute accordance with the opinions of the Mujtahidūn of the first and second classes, and with the principles which guided them. Many of these men attained great celebrity during their lifetime, but to most of them this rank is not accorded till after their death. Since their Imām Qāẓī K͟hān died (A.H. 592), no one has been recognised by the Sunnīs as a Mujtahid even of the third class.

There are three other inferior classes of jurists, called Muqallidūn, or followers of the Mujtahidūn; but all that the highest in rank amongst them can do is to explain obscure passages in the writings of the older jurisconsults. By some of the ʿUlamāʾ they are considered to be equal to the Mujtahidūn of the third class. If there are several conflicting legal opinions on any point, they can select one opinion on which to base their decision. This a mere Qāẓī cannot do. In such a case he would have to refer to these men or to their writings for guidance. They seem to have written commentaries on the legal systems without originating anything new. The author of the Hidāyah, who lived at the end of the sixth century, was a Muqallid.

IK͟HLĀṢ (اخلاص‎). Lit. “Sincerity.” (1) A theological term, implying that a Muslim performs his religious acts in the sight of God alone, and not to be seen of men. (2) Al-Ik͟hlāṣ, the title of the CXIIth Sūrah of the Qurʾān. A chapter which occurs in the daily prayer, and reads thus:—

Professor Palmer says this chapter is generally known as al-Ik͟hlāṣ, “clearing oneself,” i.e. of belief in any but one God.

IKRĀH (اكراه‎). [COMPULSION.]

ʿIKRIMAH (عكرمة‎). Lit. “A hen pigeon.” The son of Abū Jahl ibn Hishām. A “companion” of the Prophet. He embraced Islām after the final taking of Makkah. For some years he and his father, Abū Jahl, were determined opponents of Islām. He was one of the heroes of the Quraish at the battle of Badr, and commanded the left wing of the Quraish army at Uḥud. He opposed the Prophet’s advance on Makkah, and on defeat fled to Jiddah, intending to escape to Africa, but he was brought back by his wife to Makkah, and received pardon from Muḥammad, and embraced Islām. He became one of Abū Bakr’s generals, and died in his reign.

ʿIKRIMAH (عكرمة‎). Abū ʿAbdi ʾllāh ʿIkrimah ibn ʿAbdi ʾllāh, was a slave belonging to Ibn ʿAbbās. His master took great pains to teach him the Qurʾān and the Traditions, and consequently he is known as a traditionist of some note. His master, Ibn ʿAbbās, died without giving him his liberty, and ʿAlī the son of Ibn ʿAbbās sold him to K͟hālid ibn Yazīd for four thousand dīnārs. But ʿIkrimah went to ʿAlī and said, “You have sold your father’s learning for four thousand dīnārs!” Upon this, ʿAlī, being ashamed, obtained K͟hālid’s consent to annul the bargain, and he granted ʿIkrimah his liberty. He died A.H. 107 (A.D. 725), aged 84.

ĪLĀʾ (ايلاء‎). A form of divorce in which a man makes a vow that he will not have connection with his wife for not less than four months and observes it inviolate. The divorce is thereby effected ipso facto, without a decree of separation from the judge. See Qurʾān, Sūratu ʾl-Baqarah, ii. 226: “Those who swear off from their women, they must wait four months; but if they break their vow, God is forgiving and merciful.”

Sulaiman ibn Yasār says: “I was in company with about ten of the Prophet’s Companions, and every one said, ‘A man who swears that he will not go near his wife for four months shall be imprisoned until he return to her, or he shall divorce her.’ ” (Mishkāt, book xiii. ch. xiii.)

ILĀH (اله‎). An object of worship or adoration; i.e. a god, or deity. The term Allāh, “God,” being Ilāh with the definite article ال‎ al, i.e. al-ilāh, “the God.”

ILĀHĪ (الهى‎). From Ilāh, “God.” (1) That which is divine, e.g. ad-dīnu ʾl-Ilāhī, the divine religion. (2) Ilāhī is also used for the era instituted by the Emperor Akbar, commencing with the first year of his reign, A.H. 963, A.D. 1556. Although found on the coins of Akbar and his immediate successors, it never obtained currency, and is now obsolete.

IʿLĀN (اعلان‎). Publishing the notice of marriage by sending messengers to the houses of friends. A custom which is founded upon the express injunction of the Prophet, as reported by ʿĀyishah: “Give notice of marriages, perform them in mosques, and beat drums for them.” (Mishkāt, book xiii. ch. iv. pt. 2.)

ILHĀM (الهام‎). [INSPIRATION.]

AL-ILHĀMU ʾR-RABBĀNĪ (الالهام الربانى‎). [INSPIRATION.]

ILLEGITIMATE CHILDREN. An illegitimate child, Arabic waladu ʾz-zināʾ (ولد الزناء‎), has legally no father, and a putative father is, therefore, excluded from the custody of such a child. The child only inherits from its mother and the mother’s relations, who in return inherit from him. (Tagore Law Lectures, 1873, pp. 123, 488.)

ʿILLĪYŪN (عليون‎). The seventh stage of celestial bliss. Also the register in which the good deeds of Muslims are said to be written. See Sūratu ʾt-Tat̤fīf, lxxxiii. 18: “The register of the righteous is in ʿIllīyūn.” See also Mishkāt, book v. ch. iii. pt. 3: “The angels follow it (the soul) through each heaven, and the angels of one region pass it on to the next until it reaches the seventh heaven, when God says, ‘Write the name of my servant in ʿIllīyūn, and return him to the earth, that is, to his body which is buried in the earth.’”

ʿILM (علم‎). Lit. “To know; knowledge.” In Muslim theology, the word ʿIlm is always used for religious knowledge. ʿAbdu ʾl-Ḥaqq says it is the knowledge of religion as expressed in “the Book” (Qurʾān) and the “Sunnah” (Traditions), and is of two kinds, ʿIlmu ʾl-Mabādī, elementary knowledge, or that relating to the words and sentences of the Qurʾān and Ḥadīs̤; and ʿIlmu ʾl-Maqāṣīd, perfected knowledge, or that relating to faith and works, as taught in the Qurʾān and Ḥadīs̤. There is also ʿIlmu ʾl-Mukāshafah, revealed knowledge, or that secret knowledge, or light, which shines into the heart of the pious Muslim, whereby he becomes enlightened as to the truths of religion. This spiritual knowledge is also called ʿIlmu ʾl-Ḥaqīqah, or the knowledge of the truth. It is related (Mishkāt, book ii. ch. i. Arabic ed.) that the Prophet said ʿIlm is of three kinds, viz. Āyātu ʾl-Muḥkam, Sunnatu ʾl-Qāʾim, and Farīẓatu ʾl-ʿAdil, and that whatever is beyond these three is not necessary. The learned doctors explain these terms as follows: Āyātu ʾl-Muḥkam, the established text or verses of the Qurʾān; Sunnatu ʾl-Qāʾim, the correct Aḥādīs̤ or Traditions; and Farīẓatu ʾl-ʿAdil, the lawful interpretation of the Qurʾān and the Traditions.

The acquisition and the imparting of religious knowledge is very highly commended by Muḥammad (see Mishkātu ʾl-Maṣābiḥ, in loco):—

“The desire of knowledge is a divine commandment for every Muslim, and to instruct in knowledge those who are unworthy of it, is like putting pearls, jewels, and gold on the necks of swine.”

“Whoever is asked about the knowledge which he hath, and concealeth it, will be reined with a bridle of fire on the Day of Resurrection.”

“There are two avaricious persons that are never satisfied: one of them in knowledge, the more he attains the more he desires; the other of the world, with the things of which he is never satisfied.”

“That person who will pursue the road of knowledge, God will direct him to the road of Paradise; and verily the angels spread their arms to receive him that seeketh after knowledge; and everything in heaven and earth will ask grace for him. Verily the superiority of a learned man over a worshipper is like that of the full moon over all the stars.”

ʿILMU ʾL-ADAB (علم الادب‎). The science of Philology. In Ḥājjī K͟halfah, Lexicon, vol. i. p. 215, quoted by Lane, it is “the science by which one guards against error in the language of the Arabs, with respect to words and with respect to writing.”

The science of polite writing is classed under twelve heads: 1, lug͟hah, lexicology; 2, ṣarf, accidence; 3, ishtiqāq, derivation; 4, naḥw, syntax; 5, maʿānī, sense or meaning; 6, bayān, eloquence; 7, ʿarūẓ, prosody; 8, qāfīyah, rhyme; 9, rasmu ʾl-k͟hat̤t̤, calligraphy; 10, qarẓ-ush-shiʿr, versification; 11, inshāʾu ʾn-nas̤r, prose composition; 12, muḥāẓarah, dictation. These sections are regarded as distinct sciences.

ʿILMU ʾL-AK͟HLĀQ (علم الاخلاق‎). Ethics; morals. The best-known works on the subject are the Persian works—the Ak͟hlāq-i-Jalālī, by Faqīr Jānī Muḥammad, A.H. 908, which has been translated into English, with references and notes, by W. F. Thompson, Esq. (London, 1839); the Ak͟hlāq-i-Naṣīrī, by Naṣīru ʾd-dīn at̤-T̤ūsī, A.H. 672; and the Ak͟hlāq-i-Muḥsinī by the Maulawī Ḥusain al-Kāshifī (Ḥusain the commentator), A.H. 910.