ĀK͟HŪND (آخوند‎). A maulawī; a teacher. A title of respect given to eminent religious teachers. One of the most celebrated Muḥammadan teachers of modern times was the “Āk͟hūnd of Swāt,” who died A.D. 1875. This great religious leader resided in the village of Saidū, in the district of Swāt, on the north-west frontier of India.

ĀK͟HŪNDZĀDAH (آخوندزاده‎). The son of an Āk͟hūnd. A title of respect given to the sons or descendants of celebrated religious teachers. [AKHUND.]

ĀL (آل‎). Lit. “offspring, or posterity.” Used in Muslim works for the offspring of Muḥammad.

AL-AʿLA (الاعلى‎). “The Most High.” The title of the LXXXVIIth Sūrah of the Qurʾān, in the second verse of which the word occurs: “The name of thy Lord the Most High is celebrated.”

ʿALAM (علم‎). A standard or ensign. A term used for the flags and standards paraded during the Muḥarram. [MUHARRAM, STANDARDS.]

ʿĀLAM (عالم‎). The universe; world; condition, state of being.

The four mystic stages of the Ṣūfīs are—

[SUFIISM.]

ʿALĀMĀT (علامات‎). The greater signs of the resurrection. [ʿALAMATU ʾS-SAʿAH, RESURRECTION.]

ʿALĀMĀTU ʾN-NUBŪWAH (علامات النبوة‎). “The signs of Prophecy.” A term used for the supposed miracles and other proofs of the mission of Muḥammad. The title of a chapter in the Traditions. (Mishkāt, xxi. c. vi.)

ʿALĀMĀTU ʾS-SĀʿAH (علامات الساعة‎). “The signs of the hour,” i.e. the signs of the time of the Resurrection and of the Day of Judgment. The title of a section of the Traditions. (Mishkāt, xxiii. c. 3.) [RESURRECTION.]

ʿALAQ (علق‎). “Congealed blood.” The title of the XCVIth Sūrah, the first five verses of which are generally allowed to be the earliest portion of the Qurʾān.

AL-BALDAH (البلدة‎). “The City.” A name sometimes used in the Ḥadīs̤ for Makkah.

ALCHEMY. Arabic Kīmiyāʾ (كيمياء‎). According to the Kashfu ʾz̤-z̤unūn, in loco, learned Muslims are not agreed as to the existence of this occult science, nor are they of one opinion as to its lawfulness, even if it should exist.

ALEXANDER THE GREAT. Mentioned in the Qurʾān as Ẕū ʾl-Qarnain, i.e. “He of the two horns,” with which he is represented on his coins. (Sūrah xviii. 82.) He seems to have been regarded by Muḥammad as one invested with a divine commission:—“Verily we established his power upon earth”; but commentators are not agreed whether to assign to him the position of a Prophet. [ZU ʾL-QARNAIN.]

AL-ḤAMD (الحمد‎). “Praise.” A title given to the first Sūrah, so called because its first word is Al-ḥamd. This chapter is also called Fātiḥah, which term is used by modern Muslims for the Sūrah when it is said for the benefit of the dead, Al-ḥamd being its more usual title. [FATIHAH.]

AL-ḤAMDU-LIʾLLĀH (الحمد لله‎). “Praise belongs to God.” An ejaculation which is called Taḥmīd, and which occurs at the commencement of the first chapter of the Qurʾān. It is used as an ejaculation of thanksgiving—“Thank God!” It is very often recited with the addition of Rabbi ʾl-ʿālamīn, “Lord of the Universe.” [TAHMID.]

AL-ʿALĪ (العلى‎). One of the ninety-nine special names of God. It means “The Exalted One.”

ʿALĪ (على‎). The son of Abū-T̤ālib, and a cousin-german to Muḥammad, who adopted him as his son. He married Fāt̤imah, the daughter of Muḥammad, and had by her three sons, Ḥasan, Ḥusain, and Muḥassin. He was the fourth K͟halīfah, and reigned from A.H. 35 to A.H. 40. He was struck with a poisoned sword by Ibn Muljam, at al-Kūfah, and died after three days, aged fifty-nine years. The Shīʿahs hold that, on the death of Muḥammad, ʿAlī was entitled to the Khalifate, and the respective claims of Abū Bakr, ʿUmar, and ʿUs̤mān on the one hand, and of ʿAlī on the other, gave rise to the Shīʿah schism. ʿAlī is surnamed by the Arabs Asadu ʾllāh, and by the Persians Sher-i-K͟hudā, i.e. “The Lion of God.” [SHIʿAH.]

ALIF. The letter Alif (ا‎) is a monogram frequently placed at the head of letters, prescriptions, &c. It is the initial letter of the word Allāh (الله‎), “God.”

ALIF LĀM MĪM. The Arabic letters الم‎, corresponding to A L M, which occur at the commencement of six Sūrahs, namely Sūratu ʾl-Baqarah (II.), Sūratu Ālu ʿImrān (III.), Sūratu ʾl-ʿAnkabūt (XXIX.), Sūratu ʾr-Rūm (XXX.), Sūratu Luqmān (XXXI.), and Sūratu ʾs-Sijdah (XXXII.). Muḥammad never explained the meaning of these mysterious letters, and consequently they are a fruitful source of perplexity to learned commentators. Jalālu ʾd-dīn gives an exhaustive summary of the different views in his Itqān (p. 470). Some suppose they stand for the words Allāh, “God”; Lat̤īf, “gracious”; Majīd, “glorious.” Others say they stand for Ana ʾllāhu aʿlamu, “I am the God who knoweth.” Others maintain that they were not meant to be understood, and that they were inserted by the Divine command without explanation, in order to remind the reader that there were mysteries which his intellect would never fathom.

ĀLU ʿIMRĀN (آل عمرآن‎). “The family of ʿImrān.” The title of the third chapter of the Qurʾān.

ʿĀLIM (عالم‎), pl. ʿulamāʾ. A learned man. The term usually includes all religious teachers, such as Imāms, Muftīs, Qāẓīs, and Maulawīs; and in Turkey it denotes the political party led by the religious teachers.

AL-ʿALĪM (العليم‎). One of the ninety-nine special names of God. It frequently occurs in the Qurʾān, and means “The Wise One.”

ALLĀH (الله‎). [GOD.]

ALLĀHU AKBAR (الله اكبر‎). “God is great,” or “God is most great.” An ejaculation which is called the Takbīr. It occurs frequently in the liturgical forms, and is used when slaying an animal for food. [TAKBIR.]

ALMSGIVING. The word generally used for alms is Ṣadaqah, or that which manifests righteousness; the word zakāt, or purification, being specially restricted to the legal alms. [ZAKAT.] Ṣadaqātu ʾl-Fit̤r are the offerings given on the Lesser Festival. The duty of almsgiving is very frequently enjoined in the Qurʾān, e.g. Sūrah ii. 274–5, “What ye expend of good (i.e. of well-gotten wealth), it shall be paid to you again, and ye shall not be wronged. (Give your alms) unto the poor who are straitened in God’s way and cannot traverse the earth.… Those who expend their wealth by night and by day, secretly and openly, they shall have their hire with their Lord.”

The following are some of the sayings of Muḥammad on the subject of almsgiving, as they occur in the Traditions:—“The upper hand is better than the lower one. The upper hand is the giver of alms, and the lower hand is the poor beggar.” “The best of alms are those given by a man of small means, who gives of that which he has earned by labour, and gives as much as he is able.” “Begin by giving alms to your own relatives.” “Doing justice between two people is alms; assisting a man on his beast is alms; good words are alms.” “A camel lent out for milk is alms; a cup of milk every morning and evening is alms.” “Your smiling in your brother’s face is alms; assisting the blind is alms.” “God says, Be thou liberal, thou child of Adam, that I may be liberal to thee.” (See Mishkāt, Matthew’s edition, vol. i. p. 429.)

ALWĀḤ (الواح‎), pl. of Lauḥ. “The tables” (of the Law). Mentioned in the Qurʾān, Sūrah vii. 142, “We wrote for him (Moses) upon the Tables (al-Alwāḥ) a monition concerning every matter.”

Muslim divines are not agreed as to the number either of the tables, or of the Commandments. The commentators Jalālain say they were either seven or ten. [TEN COMMANDMENTS.]

ʿAMAL-NĀMAH (عمل نامه‎). The Persian word for Ṣaḥīfatu ʾl-Aʿmāl, or record of actions kept by the recording angels. [SAHIFATU ʾL-AʿMAL, KIRAMU ʾL-KATIBIN.]

AMĀN (امان‎). Protection given by a Muslim conqueror to those who pay Jizyah, or poll tax. [JIHAD.]

AMBIYĀʾ (انبياء‎), pl. of Nabī. “Prophets.” The title of the XXIst Sūrah. [PROPHETS.]

ĀMĪN (امين‎), Hebrew ‏אָמֵן‎. An expression of assent used at the conclusion of prayers, very much as in our Christian worship. It is always used at the conclusion of the Sūratu ʾl-Fātiḥah, or first chapter of the Qurʾān.

Amīn, “Faithful.” Al-Amīn is the title which it is said was given to Muḥammad when a youth, on account of his fair and honourable bearing, which won the confidence of the people.

Amīnu ʾl-Bait, one who wishes to perform the pilgrimage to Makkah.

ĀMINAH (آمنة‎). Muḥammad’s mother. She was the wife of ʿAbdu ʾllāh, and the daughter of Wahb ibn ʿAbdi Manāf. She died and was buried at al-Abwāʾ, a place midway between Makkah and al-Madīnah, before her son claimed the position of a Prophet.

AMĪR (امير‎), Anglicè, Emir. “A ruler; a commander; a chief; a nobleman.” It includes the various high offices in a Muslim state; the Imām, or K͟halīfah, being styled Amīru ʾl-Umarāʾ, the ruler of rulers; and Amīru ʾl-Muʾminīn, the commander of the believers.

AMĪRU ʾL-ḤAJJ (امير الحج‎). “The chief of the pilgrimage.” The officer in charge of the pilgrims to Makkah. [HAJJ.]

AMĪRU ʾL-MUʾMINĪN (امير المومنين‎). “The Commander of the Believers.” A title which was first given to ʿAbdu ʾllāh ibn Jaḥsh after his expedition to Nak͟hlah, and which was afterwards assumed by the K͟halīfahs (first by ʿUmar) and the Sult̤āns of Turkey. [KHALIFAH.]

ʿAMR IBN AL-ʿĀṢĪ (عمرو بن العاصى‎). One of the Companions, celebrated for his conquest of Syria, Palestine and Egypt, in the reigns of Abū Bakr and ʿUmar. He died (according to an-Nawawī) A.H. 43.

AMULETS. Arabic Ḥamāʾil (حمائل‎), “anything suspended”; Taʿwīẕ, “a refuge”; Ḥijāb, “a cover.”

Amulets, although of heathen origin, are very common in Muḥammadan countries. The following are used as amulets: (1) a small Qurʾān, encased in silk or leather, and suspended from the shoulder; (2) a chapter or verse of the Qurʾān, written on paper and folded in leather or velvet; (3) some of the names of God, or the numerical power (see ABJAD) of these names; (4) the names of prophets, celebrated saints, or the numerical power of the same; (5) the Muḥammadan creed, engraven on stone or silver. The chapters of the Qurʾān generally selected for Amulets are: Sūrahs i., vi., xviii., xxxvi., xliv., lv., lxvii., lxxviii. Five verses known as the Āyātu ʾl-Ḥifz̤, or “verses of protection,” are also frequently inscribed on Amulets. They are Sūrahs ii. 256; xii. 64; xiii. 12; xv. 17; xxxvii. 7. [AYATU ʾL-HIFZ.]

These charms are fastened on the arm or leg, or suspended round the neck, as a protection against evil. They are also put on houses and animals, and, in fact, upon anything from which evil is to be averted. Strictly, according to the principles of Islām, only the names of God, or verses from the Qurʾān, should be used for amulets. Information regarding the formation of magic squares and amulets will be found in the article on Exorcism. [EXORCISM, DAʿWAH.]

AL-ANʿĀM (الانعام‎). “The Cattle.” The title of the VIth Sūrah, in verse 137 of which some superstitious customs of the Meccans, as to certain cattle, are incidentally mentioned.

ANĀNĪYAH (انانية‎). From ana, “I.” “Egotism.” Al-anānīyah is a term used by the Ṣūfīs to express the existence of man.

ANAS IBN MĀLIK (انس ابن مالك‎). The last of the Companions of Muḥammad, and the founder of the sect of the Mālikīs. He died at al-Baṣrah, A.H. 93, aged 103.

AL-ANFĀL (الانفال‎). “The Spoils.” The title of the VIIIth Sūrah which was occasioned by a dispute regarding the spoils taken at the battle of Badr, between the young men who had fought and the old men who had stayed with the ensigns.

ANGEL. Arabic malʾak or malak (ملاك‎, ملك‎). Persian Firishtah (فرشته‎). “It is believed,” says Ibn Mājah, “that the angels are of a simple substance (created of light), endowed with life, and speech, and reason; and that the difference between them, the Jinn, and Shait̤āns is a difference of species. Know,” he adds, “that the angels are sanctified from carnal desire and the disturbance of anger: they disobey not God in what He hath commanded them, but do what they are commanded. Their food is the celebrating of His glory; their drink, the proclaiming of His holiness; their conversation, the commemoration of God, Whose name be exalted; their pleasure, His worship; and they are created in different forms and with different powers.” (Arabian Nights, Lane’s edition, Notes to the Introduction, p. 27.)

Four of them are archangels, or, as they are called in Arabic, Karūbīyūn (Cherubim), namely, Jabraʾīl, or Jibrīl, (Gabriel), the angel of revelations; Mīkaʾīl, or Mīkāl, (Michael), the patron of the Israelites; Isrāfīl, the angel who will sound the trumpet at the last day; and ʿIzrāʾīl, or ʿAzrāʾīl, the angel of death. Angels are said to be inferior in dignity to human prophets, because all the angels were commanded to prostrate themselves before Adam (Sūrah ii. 32). Every believer is attended by two recording angels, called the Kirāmu ʾl-kātibīn, one of whom records his good actions, and the other his evil actions. There are also two angels, called Munkar and Nakīr, who examine all the dead in their graves. The chief angel who has charge of hell is called Mālik, and his subordinates are named Zabāniyah, or guards. A more extended account of these angels will be found under their particular titles.

The angels intercede for man: “The angels celebrate the praise of their Lord, and ask forgiveness for the dwellers on earth.” (Sūrah xlii. 3.) They also act as guardian angels: “Each hath a succession of angels before him and behind him, who watch over him by God’s behest.” (Sūrah xiii. 12.) “Is it not enough for you that your Lord aideth you with three thousand angels sent down (from on high)?” (Sūrah iii. 120.) “He is the supreme over His servants, and sendeth forth guardians who watch over you, until, when death overtaketh any one of you, our messengers receive him and fail not.” (Sūrah vi. 61.)

There are eight angels who support the throne of God, “And the angels shall be on its sides, and over them on that day eight shall bear up the throne of thy Lord.” (Sūrah lxix. 17.) Nineteen have charge of hell. “Over it are nineteen. None but angels have we made guardians of the fire.” (Sūrah lxxiv. 30, 31.)

The names of the guardian angels given in the book on Exorcism (daʿwah), entitled the Jawāhiru ʾl-K͟hamsah, are Isrāfīl, Jibrāʾīl, Kalkāʾīl, Dardāʾīl, Durbāʾīl, Raftmāʾīl, Sharkāʾīl, Tankafīl, Ismāʾīl, Sarakīkāʾīl, K͟harūrāʾīl, T̤at̤āʾīl, Rūyāʾīl, Hūlāʾīl, Hamwākīl, ʿItrāʾīl, Amwākīl, ʿAmrāʾīl, ʿAzrāʾīl, Mīkāʾīl, Mahkāʾīl, Hartāʾīl, ʿAtāʾīl, Nurāʾīl, Nukhāʾīl. [EXORCISM.]

ANIMALS. Arabic Ḥayawān (حيوان‎). According to the Qurʾān, Sūrah xxiv. 44, “God hath created every animal of water.” “An idea,” says Rodwell, “perhaps derived from Gen. i. 20, 21.”

It is believed that at the Resurrection the irrational animals will be restored to life, that they may be brought to judgment, and then be annihilated. See Qurʾān, Sūrah vi. 38, “No kind of beast is there on the earth, nor fowl that flieth with its wings, but is a community like you; nothing have We passed over in the book (of the Eternal decrees): then unto their Lord shall they be gathered.”

AL-ʿANKABŪT (العنكبوت‎). “The Spider.” The title of the XXIXth Sūrah, in which there is a passing reference to this insect in the 40th verse:—“The likeness for those who take to themselves guardians besides God is the likeness of the spider who buildeth her a house; but truly the frailest of all houses surely is the house of the spider.”

AL-ANṢĀR (الانصار‎). “The Helpers,” a term used for the early converts of al-Madīnah; but when all the citizens of al-Madīnah were ostensibly converted to Islām, they were all named Anṣār, while those Muslims who accompanied the Prophet from Makkah to al-Madīnah were called Muhājirūn, or exiles. (Muir’s Life of Mahomet, vol iii. p. 26.) [MUHAMMAD.]

ANTICHRIST. [MASIHU ʾD-DAJJAL.]

APOSTASY FROM ISLĀM. Arabic irtidād (ارتداد‎). According to Muslim law, a male apostate, or Murtadd, is liable to be put to death if he continue obstinate in his error; a female apostate is not subject to capital punishment, but she may be kept in confinement until she recant. (Hamilton’s Hidāyah, vol. ii. p. 227.) If either the husband or wife apostatize from the faith of Islām, a divorce takes place ipso facto; the wife is entitled to her whole dower, but no sentence of divorce is necessary. If the husband and wife both apostatize together, their marriage is generally allowed to continue, although the Imām Zufar says it is annulled. But if, after their joint apostasy, either husband or wife were singly to return to Islām, then the marriage would be dissolved. (Hamilton’s Hidāyah, vol. ii. p. 183.)

According to Abū Ḥanīfah, a male apostate is disabled from selling or otherwise disposing of his property. But Abū Yūsuf and Imām Muḥammad differ from their master upon this point, and consider a male apostate to be as competent to exercise every right as if he were still in the faith. (Hidāyah, vol. ii. p. 235.)

If a boy under age apostatize, he is not to be put to death, but to be imprisoned until he come to full age, when, if he continue in the state of unbelief, he must be put to death. Neither lunatics nor drunkards are held to be responsible for their apostasy from Islām. (Hidāyah, vol. ii. 246.) If a person upon compulsion become an apostate, his wife is not divorced, nor are his lands forfeited. If a person become a Musalmān upon compulsion, and afterwards apostatize, he is not to be put to death. (Hidāyah, vol. iii. 467.)

The will of a male apostate is not valid, but that of a female apostate is valid. (Hidāyah, vol. iv. 637.)

ʿIkrimah relates that some apostates were brought to the K͟halīfah ʿAlī, and he burnt them alive; but Ibn ʿAbbās heard of it, and said that the K͟halīfah had not acted rightly, for the Prophet had said, “Punish not with God’s punishment (i.e. fire), but whosoever changes his religion, kill him with the sword.” (Ṣaḥīḥu ʾl-Buk͟hārī.)

APOSTLE. Arabic rasūl (رسول‎), ḥawārī (حوارى‎). The term rasūl (apostle or messenger) is applied to Muḥammad, that of ḥawārī being used in the Qurʾān (Sūrah iii. 4, 5; Sūrah iv. 111, 112; Sūrah lxi. 14) for the Apostles of Jesus. The word ḥawārī seems to be derived from the Æthiopic ḥōra, “to go”; ḥawāryā, “apostle”; although, according to al-Baiẓāwī, the commentator, it is derived from ḥawira, “to be white,” in Syriac, ḥewar, and was given to the disciples of Jesus, he says, on account of their purity of life and sincerity, or because they were respectable men and wore white garments. In the Traditions (Mishkāt, book i. c. vi. part 2) ḥawārī is used for the followers of all the prophets. [PROPHETS.]

AL-ʿAQABAH (العقبة‎). A sheltered glen near Minā, celebrated as the scene of the two pledges, the first and second pledge of al-ʿAqabah. The first pledge was made by ten men of the tribe of K͟hazraj and ten of Aus, when they plighted their faith to Muḥammad thus:—“We will not worship any but one God; we will not steal; nor commit adultery; nor kill our children; nor will we slander our neighbour; and we will obey the Prophet of God.” The date assigned to this pledge by Sir W. Muir is April 21, A.D. 621. The second pledge was a few months afterwards, when seventy-three men and two women came forward, one by one, and took an oath of fealty to the Prophet. Muḥammad named twelve of the chief of these men, and said:—“Moses chose from amongst his people twelve leaders. Ye shall be sureties for the rest, even as were the Apostles of Jesus; and I am surety for my people. And the people answered, Āmīn, So be it.” (Muir’s Life of Mahomet, vol. ii. pp. 216, 232.)

ʿĀQIB (عاقب‎). “A successor or deputy.” “One who comes last.” Al-ʿāqib is a title given to Muḥammad as being styled “the last of the prophets.”

ʿĀQILAH (عاقلة‎). The relatives who pay the expiatory mulct for manslaughter, or any other legal fine. They must be relatives descended from one common father. (Hamilton’s Hidāyah, vol. iv. pages 449, 452; Baillie’s Law of Sale, p. 214.)

ʿAQĪQAH (عقيقة‎). A custom observed by the Arabs on the birth of a child; namely, leaving the hair on the infant’s head until the seventh day, when it is shaved, and animals are sacrificed, namely, two sheep for a boy and one for a girl. (Mishkāt, xviii. c. 3.) It is enjoined by Muḥammadan law, and observed in all parts of Islām.

ARABIA. Bilādu ʾl-ʿArab (بلاد العرب‎), Jazīratu ʾl-ʿArab (جزيرة العرب‎), ʿArabistān (عربستان‎). The peninsula bearing, amongst the Arabs, these names is the country situated on the east of the Red Sea, and extending as far as the Persian Gulf.

The word probably signifies a “barren place,” “desert” (Heb. ‏עֲרָבָה‎).

Ptolemy divides Arabia into three parts, Arabia Petræa, Arabia Felix, and Arabia Deserta; but Arabian geographers divide it into Tiḥāmah, al-Ḥijāz, an-Najd, al-ʿArūz̤, and al-Yaman.

The races which have peopled Arabia are divided into three sections, al-ʿArabu ʾl-Bāʾidah, al-ʿArabu ʾl-ʿĀribah, and al-ʿArabu ʾl-Mustaʿribah.