There are two divisions to the traffic department, namely, the freight and the passenger divisions. The freight division makes studies of the commodities to be moved, of the competition the railroad has to meet, and of the charges that the traffic will bear without being diverted to other lines or routes. It adjusts claims for lost or damaged freight. It solicits business by keeping in touch with the shipping interests along its line or those who could be induced to use its line in connection with another road. For this purpose traveling freight agents are employed. These men must know rates, routes, commodities, and men. Their employment depends upon their knowledge of their business and their ability to meet and convince, for instance, the manufacturer that he should ship over their line. In other words, they are salesmen of railroad service.
Former railroad conductors or brakemen of a high degree of intelligence, who have been disabled in the war, may in some cases wisely elect to take training for service in the traffic department. Much of the information that a conductor or brakeman has learned in his old position will be of value to him. In the traffic department both officers and clerks must know how properly to bill freight, how to calculate both local and through freight rates, and how to route through freight over connecting lines. They must know the junctions where cars can be transferred and where they can not, and where less-than-car load shipments can be transferred without drayage. They must be familiar with the seasonal movement of freight and must know what commodities come from certain districts and with what regularity, in order to anticipate heavy freight movements, and have cars at points where they are most needed. The intelligent conductor or brakeman has already acquired much of this information. Freight conductors are well qualified for training as traffic men, traveling freight agents, terminal traffic men, assistant traffic managers, or even traffic managers. Former clerks in the traffic department also could take training and qualify for better positions.
The passenger division of the traffic department attempts to obtain extensive travel over its lines. Conventions, circuses, and all such attractions for crowds are noted and excursions provided whenever they seem to promise to be profitable. Such excursions must be advertised, and this demands an advertising man in the department.
In large cities where many competing railroads center, city ticket offices are maintained from which solicitors are sent out to induce persons known to be planning a trip to travel on their respective lines. A disabled passenger conductor might qualify by training for a position in this division, and find that his past experience would be very helpful in the new position.
Those formerly in purely clerical positions, who have been disabled, may advantageously take courses in rates and rate making, and thus qualify for higher positions.
In other departments of railroad service, there are a large number of positions that former train, station, or track men who have been disabled could advantageously fill, utilizing their railroading experience, and taking training for the new positions. These disabled men would have to be men of intelligence and not too old to take up a somewhat different line of work.
Such men could, for example, learn accounting and would find their knowledge of train matters, track affairs, and station duties of value in helping them to understanding certain accounts. Auditors could do their work more efficiently if they understood more of the work in the various branches of railroad service.
Again, top-heavy engines would not be placed on tracks made up largely of curves, in the hope that the high drivers would give greater speed than could be developed from lower-wheeled engines, had the responsible officials or their advisers understood more of track maintenance, especially in cuts in rainy weather. In one instance when high-wheeled engines were placed in service on a road the track men complained immediately, but it took a series of wrecks on curves to induce a change to safer engines.
The claim department could utilize men who have been “out on the road.” Actual railroad experience would be of value to a young man about to enter the legal department of a railroad. A young railroad man inclined to legal affairs could take the training provided by the Federal Board, and thus make his disability a means of advancement to one of the highest paid positions on railroads.
The purchasing agent and his assistants could undoubtedly gain in efficiency by having in their offices men who have had actual experience in handling the materials that these agents must purchase. When to insist upon strict compliance with all specifications, and when in the case of certain specifications to make concessions, are matters that may involve large sums of money and in such matters the advice of men with actual experience in using the materials would be very helpful.
Percy R. Todd, Assistant to District Director and General Manager, Bangor & Aroostook Railroad, Bangor, Me., says:
“There always has been, and, in my judgment, always will be a demand in excess of the supply for the following classes of employees, particularly relating to office work, viz.:
“Stenographers.
“Tariff clerks (trained in the framing and publication of freight and passenger tariffs in accordance with Interstate Commerce Commission rules).
“Freight claim clerks (trained in the handling of both overcharge and loss and damage freight claims).
“Waybill clerks (there has always been great difficulty in obtaining trained men to make waybills at stations).
“Telegraph operators.
“Expert railroad accountants.
“Clerks trained in valuation of railroads.
“In all of the above-mentioned lines, so far as my personal experience goes, there has always been a shortage and probably always will be.
“As to stenography, I consider it the very best medium through which any young man can make progress on a railroad, as it lifts him at once above the mass of clerks and gives him an individuality and a touch with executive officers which almost invariably leads to his promotion.
“In this connection I might add that the traffic manager of the New York Central Railroad, * * *, was at one time my stenographer when I was connected with the New York Central System, and rose from that position to be traffic manager of all their lines; the president of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad, who died three or four years ago, started as a stenographer with the Michigan Central Railroad at Chicago.
“The general manager to-day of one of the New England railroads started as a stenographer with the same company, and I could give a great many more instances of what stenography has done for men who had the brains to back it up.”
For the second group of employments designated, shopwork, the physical requirements are higher than for office and clerical work, since shopwork generally calls for at least ordinary strength and eyesight. Shopworkers include general foremen, gang and other foremen, machinists, boiler makers, blacksmiths, carpenters, painters, upholsterers, electricians, air brake men, car inspectors, car repairmen, mechanics helpers, and apprentices. A number of men now employed in these occupations have suffered injuries to hands or feet, or have defective hearing. Foremen can perform their duties under disabilities that would be serious handicaps for workmen, but a foreman needs good eyesight.
Practically all of these occupations require considerable skill and general knowledge of railroad equipment. While the workmen have machines with which to perform many operations in the shop, still much handwork must be done. This is the case because repair work is varied, and the work must usually be done partly on the car or engine, sometimes out on the road. The machinist’s work is generally heavy and greasy. Some of the carpentering and paint work is rough, as is that on box cars, while some, such as the cabinet making and varnishing of passenger coaches, is highly skilled.
A skilled machinist or mechanic can learn to do railroad work very quickly after he gets on the job. Others must spend a period of apprenticeship to learn the trade. Quite a number of railroads have regular apprenticeship courses. Wood-working and metal-trade schools also give much of the training required for railroad shop work. We give below a description of the occupations to suggest to the disabled soldier the training he will probably need, and to enable him to decide whether the occupations are suited to his disabilities.
For the disabled soldier or sailor who is mechanically inclined, the railroad shop offers an opportunity for good wages and advancement. The depreciation of the great amount of mechanical equipment of a modern railroad is very large and railroads have not had in the shops for a number of years sufficient men to keep the rolling stock in good condition. The number of bad-order cars and locomotives has been large, and they have not moved out of the shops as rapidly as they should. The automobile industry has undoubtedly been a strong competitor for the mechanics who otherwise might have gone into railroad shops. Some railroads have attempted to provide themselves with sufficient machinists by training apprentices in considerable numbers.
The master mechanic has charge of the machine shop and the employees therein. Under him, are usually, shop foremen, roundhouse foremen, road foremen, and sometimes other supervisors. He may himself be under a superintendent of motive power, or directly under the division superintendent.
Usually on a par with the master mechanic is the superintendent of the car department, sometimes called a master carpenter, who has charge of car builders and painters, repairmen and inspectors, cleaners and oilers.
The work of the two departments is not clearly differentiated to-day, since the introduction of the steel car has required mechanics for its upkeep rather than carpenters. Previously, the line was drawn at the wood and metal parts. The two departments attempt to keep the railroad equipment in running order.
In these departments are found also clerks who keep records and help in making reports and in correspondence. The storekeeper and his assistants are usually under the supervision of the master mechanic. Since none of the positions are essentially manual ones, they could be filled by disabled men having the necessary ability, training and experience. Experience in the lower positions is required to fit for any of the higher ones. For executive positions ability to handle men as well as the other qualifications are essential. For clerical positions the qualifications are chiefly educational.
In the railroad shops we find generally the following skilled workmen: Machinists, blacksmiths, boilermakers, sheet metal mechanics, pipe fitters, electricians, molders, and inspectors.
Railroad machinists in small shops do all sorts of repair work, but in large shops they are frequently assigned to special work. A machinist may, for instance, work only at a large lathe truing up “flat” wheels or journals. Since power cranes are now used to set the work in place in the lathe, no heavy lifting is required. A disabled man can do the work if he knows how to adjust the lathe so that the wheels or journals are machined properly. If he has good eyesight in one eye, one good hand, and can stand at the machine during working hours, his disabilities will not seriously handicap him. Another machinist may work on engine parts—for example, on cylinders, pistons, or cut-off valves. Use of power cranes for placing most of this work has reduced greatly the need for great physical strength on the part of the railroad machinist. However, those who are sent out on the road to help clear up wrecks must occasionally do heavy lifting.
The air-brake man is a mechanic who installs and repairs the air-brake equipment of locomotives and cars. Much of his work consists in removing defective parts and replacing them with new properly fitted parts. As he must frequently work under cars and do a certain amount of rather heavy lifting, he needs both arms, good eyesight, and good hearing. He must also have good health. The loss of a leg would be a considerable handicap for installation work. A disabled air-brake man could easily train himself to become an air-brake test-room inspector. In such a position his knowledge and skill would count more than his physical condition. For this position he must be thoroughly familiar with all the parts and functions of the air brake; and be able to adjust valves and other parts quickly.
The railroad blacksmith must forge or weld light and heavy pieces for all sorts of railroad equipment. He may forge a steeple bolt for a hand car, cut and fit the parts for a crossing frog, set the steel tires on the drive wheels of a locomotive, or straighten a bent driving rod. He must be able to read blue prints, and to take old, worn, and broken pieces as a guide to construct a new piece. He must be able also to do all sorts of welding and to heat large pieces properly. He must understand how to temper steel for the use to which it is to be put. His work thus requires technical knowledge and manipulative skill. But since power hammers and cranes are used on heavy pieces his work is not so heavy as formerly. The loss of one or two fingers, or of a leg, or of the sight of one eye, would not handicap a well-trained man. Poor hearing would not ordinarily be a serious handicap.
The boilermaker keeps in repair the locomotive and stationary boilers of the railroad. He must be able to retube, patch, overhaul, and construct boilers. Ordinarily his heaviest duties are to remove old leaky tubes from boilers and place in new ones, and to patch up or even renew the fireboxes. However, wrecks frequently cause him to take boilers apart and put in new pieces, so that he almost reconstructs the boiler. He must be able to read blue prints and use templates in laying off plates and angles. He must know how to punch, shear, and rivet the parts, and calk the boilers, and how to weld or cut pieces with an oxy-acetylene torch. The work is heavy and dirty, but good hearing is not essential and the loss of an eye is not a serious handicap. The boilermaker must, however, have strength and the use of both hands, although he may have lost a finger or two from either hand.
The work and qualifications of the steel-car repairer are not radically different from those of the boiler maker. The metal-car repair man also must be able to drill or punch holes, to cut out broken parts of metal, replace them with new ones, and rivet them in, but his work is not so technical as that of the boiler-maker.
With the installation of electric headlights and electrically lighted passenger cars the electrician’s duties in repair shops have increased greatly in recent years. He must keep in repair the dynamos on locomotives and the dynamos and storage batteries on passenger cars. The growing use of the electric locomotive means that the demand for railway electricians is sure to increase. Repair of motors for these as well as for electric cranes used in a number of shops calls for armature winders in increasing numbers. Both technical knowledge and manipulative skill are required, but ordinarily the work is not heavy. Disabled men with good eyesight in one eye, with two arms and one good hand, who are able to move about easily, could do the work.
Inspectors of boilers and of other parts of locomotives, and of the metal parts of cars, must know thoroughly the parts to be inspected. Usually they have had considerable experience in the repair of these parts. Frequently they must help to make the repair or must supervise the work when they find a minor defect in railway equipment at a location not convenient to the shop.
Repairing or rebuilding of wooden cars is done by car builders or repairmen and painters. It is largely carpenter work. These men must be able to remove any broken or damaged piece of a car, replace it with a new piece, and paint or varnish it. The builders or repairmen must be thoroughly skilled in the use of all hand carpentry tools and be able to use readily any of the woodworking machinery necessary to produce car parts. On passenger-car work, the repaired part must be finished nicely, and the whole painted or varnished so that the repair is not obvious. No such care is required for work on freight cars.
In addition to the men who work regularly in the shop, there are a number of men who must travel over the road and keep mechanical or electrical equipment in working order. These men must all have mechanical ability. Ordinarily, they must be physically sound, since they are exposed to weather and to danger from trains. Among these men are signal and interlocking maintainers, and signal inspectors. They must have both mechanical and electrical knowledge.
In the third group of employments, included under the heading track work, a man needs physical strength and agility, good health, good eyesight, and good hearing. Without these, he is constantly in danger himself and may endanger the lives of others. Only the foremen may have physical disabilities, such as the loss of a hand or arm. All must have good health, since they are exposed regularly to all sorts of weather. All must have good eyesight, in order that they may do their work properly and avoid danger. Poor hearing would continually subject the man to danger from passing trains, from falling objects, or other sources of danger, since one who has poor hearing would not generally hear or would misunderstand warnings of danger. A man on the track must be agile in order to avoid danger.
Men in this group are frequently classed as unskilled, largely because railroads have employed for the work unskilled foreign laborers, but to do the work properly considerable skill is nevertheless required. Poorly tamped ties, “goosenecks,” maul dents on the rails, and similar defects are evidences that may be found on many roads of unskilled work. Ability to drive a spike properly, so that the rail is held securely to the ties, is not quickly acquired.
Fence work, bridge work, cement work, and similar work, often performed by special gangs, require skill to be done rapidly and well.
The main occupations in this group are track laborers, foremen and supervisors, bridge carpenters and foremen, fence-gang men and foremen, and other extra gang men and foremen, linemen and repairers, painters of sign posts and structures, structural iron workers and foremen, and concrete workers and foremen.
In track work, only the positions of foremen or supervisors pay good wages, and only these could be suitably undertaken by disabled men.
The track laborer in the eastern and northern section of the country has to compete with the immigrant from Europe, in the South with the Negro, in the West with the Mexican, and in the far West with the Oriental. Only a few workers on construction gangs do not have to meet this competition directly, because their work requires a skill that the foreigner does not acquire easily. But such work is very seasonal, being done for the most part during the summer and early fall. Wages are not high and working conditions usually are poor if not bad. Extra gang work, in this respect, is very little different. Section work, while allowing the men to have home life and thus have better living conditions, usually is seasonal and pays lower wages than is paid to other gangs upon track construction work. Bridge construction or repair work requires some skill and the wages are good, but the danger is considerable for even a physically strong and sound man. The painters of structures receive good wages, but their work requires climbing into dangerous positions. The lineman must frequently do climbing to repair wires, or to cut away limbs of trees thrown upon the wires by storms. Evidently, these positions are not suitable for the disabled soldier from three standpoints, namely, the seasonal character of the work, the danger to which it subjects him, and the relatively low wages paid on the average for the year. The position of timekeeper for large extra gangs is, of course, mainly clerical, but is undesirable since it is very seasonal. All track occupations are hazardous and accidents are frequent.
The duties of the track foreman are to supervise workmen, to teach green hands how to do the various sorts of work, and to make out reports on various matters ranging from the pay roll to a report of live stock killed by a train. He must be familiar with the time of all trains at various points on his section, with the signals, with the degree of curves and the needed elevation, and with the use of the various appliances and tools used on a modern railroad. The section gang uses a large number of tools, and these must be kept in proper condition. Railway appliances are numerous, and the section foreman has supervision over these. Introduction of the motor car to take the place of the old hand car, has called for more mechanical skill on the part of the foreman. A disabled man could perform the usual duties of a foreman, if his disabilities did not affect his eyesight, hearing or health, but loss of an arm or a leg might increase the accident hazard, as, for example, in case an extra train caught the gang in a cut or out on a high dump with the hand or motor car.
The track supervisor usually supervises a number of section foremen. He must be an able trackman, so that he can recognize immediately the nature of a defect in the track as he rides over it on a train. He issues orders to track foremen for changes in location or character of work, handles reports from foremen on certain subjects, and himself makes out various reports. He portions out supplies and materials for the track under his supervision, and is held responsible for the condition of this track by the engineer of the maintenance of way. A disabled section foreman could with training qualify himself for a position as supervisor, but the vacancies in this position are not numerous, and railroads usually give preference to the physically sound men.
The occupations in group four—train work—are engineers, firemen, baggagemen, porters, brakemen, conductors, hostlers, switchmen, and motormen. For this fourth group there are many limitations upon disabilities which a man may have suffered and undertake work without endangering himself and others. In none of these jobs can a man’s hearing or eyesight, or nerves, or heart be defective, and no one who is color blind can hold any of them. The loss of an arm would usually debar a man—even passenger conductors who have lost an arm are now infrequent. There are a few firemen and engineers successfully holding their jobs who have lost a leg, but a freight brakeman could hardly do his work if he were thus disabled. The loss of a hand generally unfits a man to be brakeman, fireman, or engineer.
There are three classes of engineers, firemen, brakemen, and conductors namely, those working in the yards, those on freight trains, and those on passenger trains. A yard engineer, fireman, or conductor may have suffered disabilities that the men in the freight and passenger service can not have without being handicapped in competition with normal men. In none of the positions do the duties permit of a large number of disabilities, or of very serious ones. All must pass rigid physical examinations—eyes are tested for color blindness as well as for other defects, and hearing must be excellent. All must pass a rigid examination in the rules and regulations, signals, schedules, and the road conditions.
The duties of an engineer are exacting. He drives his engine over the track where there are curves, crossings, switches, and signals that he must constantly watch. He must recognize instantly the color of the numerous signals displayed at various points along the line. He must sound the whistle as he approaches crossings and other points. He must also note the running condition of his engine—for instance, whether the bearings are becoming too hot. When the engine stops for water he usually oils certain bearings. He must learn to apply the steam and adjust the reverse lever so as to give the maximum pulling power to the engine at one time, and to attain considerable speed at another time, in either case with due regard to the load he is pulling and the track he is running upon. He must, accordingly, learn where the track is good and he can make speed and where it is bad, so that he must slow down. In emergencies he must be able to close the throttle and apply the air almost instantly, or to reverse the engine. For this he needs both hands. His eyesight must be excellent and his arms, heart, and nerves good. Wages paid to engineers are high, averaging $2,000 a year, but the position is one of great responsibility, and it is one that few disabled men would be allowed to undertake.
The fireman must be physically strong. He must shovel coal into the firebox so that the steam pressure will be sufficient at all times for the pulling power of the engine, and yet not be “blowing off” frequently. He must watch the water level in the boiler and see that it does not get low. He must climb back over the tender when the engine takes water. He takes on coal at the coal chutes. On occasions he has to go forward to flag to protect the train from in front. Where automatic bell ringers are not installed he usually keeps the bell ringing when the engine is doing work in yards near a crossing or where other men may be endangered by the engine. When the engine is running and he is not busy shoveling coal he is watching the track along with the engineer, but on the other side of the cab. He must especially watch when his side of the cab is on the inside of a curve. Since the fireman may in an emergency be called upon to perform the duties of an engineer, he is under the same limitations as regards disabilities as the engineer. The accident rate among firemen is high.
The brakeman has various duties, somewhat depending upon the sort of a train on which he works. On a passenger train he calls stations, helps passengers on and off the trains, regulates the heating and lighting of cars, and sets switches. Sometimes this work is done by a porter. As a crippled brakeman would tend to give timid passengers a concrete example of what might result from a wreck or an accident upon the road, railroads have not wished to have disabled men fill this position. How they might deal with the disabled soldier is uncertain.
The through-freight brakeman sets switches when his train goes on a siding for another train, or his train picks up a car at a junction point, or sets out one. In such a case, he uncouples the train, air brakes, etc., throws the switches, and after the car has been picked up or set out, couples up the train, makes the air brake connections, and tests them. He watches the train for hot boxes, and transmits signals from the conductor to the engineer. He must climb on and over freight cars, cross bridges, tracks, and switches. He needs to be sound physically.
The brakeman on a local-freight train has no end of switching to do, or loading and unloading less-than-carload freight at small stations along the entire run. The physical demands made upon him are even greater than those made upon a through-freight brakeman. Disabled men should not undertake this job.
The duties of the freight conductor, while lighter from the physical standpoint than those of the freight brakemen, are nevertheless so heavy that a disabled man is not usually wanted by railroads. At certain times he must do the same work as the brakeman does. He must walk over trains or tracks to get orders, or confer with the engineer. He must direct the picking up and the setting out of cars. He must keep a record of the cars in his train, of the ones set out, and of those picked up. He carries the way bills for the freight in his train. He must read and sign for all orders received for his train. His duties, while requiring more mental work than those of the brakeman, are still so heavy and dangerous that any physical disability would be a handicap to him.
The passenger conductor collects fares and supervises the passengers and train. He is responsible for the train orders as is the freight conductor. The physical requirements made upon him are normally light, but in emergencies, he needs to be physically sound. Formerly, passenger conductors who had lost fingers or even an arm or leg were frequent, but in recent years railroads have not wanted disabled men for this service, since they remind passengers of accidents. The passenger conductor needs to have a knowledge of trains and their time at meeting or crossing points, of the various sorts of tickets and script. He must make out various reports. If the railroads would place disabled men in this position, providing they were old railroad men who had been wounded in the war, this would be the best of all the positions in train work for an intelligent disabled soldier.
The train work in the yards consists of switching. The work of the yard fireman or engineer is perhaps somewhat less exacting than that of a fireman or engineer out on the line, but for the brakeman it is more exacting. The hostler is usually what might well be called an apprentice fireman, and so he must be as physically sound as the fireman or engineer. Yard conditions are so dangerous that disabled men would usually find their disabilities a handicap.
The baggageman on trains needs to be physically strong, since he has to handle heavy trunks. He could sustain the loss of a leg or have too poor eyesight or hearing to qualify for other train work, if in emergencies he were not called upon to do the other train work. Since he is so called upon he must be physically as sound as a brakeman. He has some clerical work to do. Sometimes he is a mail clerk, express messenger, and extra brakeman. Little knowledge or training is required to fill this position—a strong man of ordinary intelligence could learn to fill the position in a few days. He must know the stations and transfer points. Wages are about the same as for brakeman.
In the fifth group of employments, including those conducing directly to train operation, are found the pumpman, the men on the coal chutes, the freight handlers, the crossing guardmen, and similar workmen. In this group, the requirements are good health, a fair degree of strength, and knowledge of the occupation.
The pumpman may have defective hearing, but must then have excellent eyesight, since he should notice engine trouble quickly if he can not hear it well. If his eyesight is poor, he should have good hearing. The pumpman needs to have some knowledge of boilers and steam pumps, but ordinarily his work is not heavy, even when he has to shovel all the coal for the boiler.
For men on the coal chutes, either poor eyesight or poor hearing, one or the other singly, is not a serious handicap, but good health is necessary as well as ability to climb over the sides of cars. The freight handlers need strong backs and good eyesight to read names of boxes, etc. When motor trucks are used, the truckman ought to have some mechanical ability. The crossing guardman needs both good eyesight and hearing, but may have suffered the loss of an arm or a leg, even of both an arm and a leg. On the whole, the range of permissible disabilities for men in this group is greater than for those in groups three and four.
Of all the jobs in this field practically the only one requiring any considerable knowledge or skill is that of the pumpman, and even for this position an ordinary man can learn all that he usually needs to know in a month on the job.
With exception of freight handling, work in these employments has been given largely to men disabled in railroad service. For instance, a disabled brakeman is offered the job of switchman or crossing watchman; a fireman, that of stationary fireman, or engine watchman; conductors, that of flagman; and so on. Crew callers and lamp-room attendants are frequently disabled men. So generally has this policy been followed that the crossing watchmen, flagmen, and engine watchmen are commonly men who have been disabled. The positions are, however, not such as will appeal to the intelligent ambitious disabled soldier or sailor.
Street railway operation furnishes rather regular employment to men on the regular force. From this standpoint it is desirable for the disabled soldier or sailor. It is not seasonal to any marked degree, nor is it greatly affected by industrial depressions; and bad weather only increases the need for employees instead of lessening it as in many out-of-doors occupations. Few of the street railway employees are exposed to bad weather conditions, although the work is not so protected as in an indoor occupation. They are, however, exposed to dust from the streets and contagious diseases. All of the positions on street railways carry with them a high degree of responsibility, but the position of motorman is probably the one of greatest responsibility.
The occupation of the street car motorman is one that can be taken up by disabled soldiers and sailors. Those who have suffered merely the loss of part of the fingers on one or both hands, or of a leg, can operate a street car. A car can be operated by those who are physically unfit for heavy work, especially if the car is equipped with air brakes and the working hours are not too long. But those who have defective eyesight, poor hearing, or are subject to nervous trouble should not undertake this work. Those who have suffered from shell shock should not attempt to operate a car until they have fully recovered.
The work is light, but requires constant attention, especially under conditions of heavy traffic. The motorman must constantly watch the track to prevent collisions with automobiles or other vehicles whose drivers take hazardous chances in crossing the track. Men, women and children must likewise be watched and warned. The motorman must acquire skill in operating the controller so that he can start the car off rapidly without causing the circuit breaker to break the current. He must learn to apply the air gradually so the car will not stop with a jerk or the wheels slide on the track. He must learn to estimate distances so that he can stop his car at the proper point. He must form the habit of never starting without a signal from the conductor.
The working conditions are suitable for disabled men. Stools are usually provided for the motorman, which he can use outside the congested district. Most of the cars have closed vestibules for bad weather. The working hours are irregular, but usually not over 10 in 24. Usually there are two work periods in a day, with a rest period of two or three hours between—the work periods come with the morning and evening rush of people to and from their work.
The conductor’s position makes fewer physical requirements upon him than that of the motorman. His position is, however, one of responsibility, and honesty is a prime essential. His duty is to collect fares, give proper change to passengers, and issue transfers. All his receipts must be turned over to the company. He must see that passengers are not endangered in any way, especially by the car starting too soon or the passenger attempting to alight before the car has stopped. Accordingly the conductor must have good eyesight and hearing. He may, however, have suffered some dismemberments, and he need not be physically strong. Courteous conductors are much in demand by street railways.
The training for the position either of motorman or conductor is generally conducted on the job. New men are placed on a car with an experienced motorman and operate the car under his direction until they are able to operate a car independently. The period of training is usually short—a week to two weeks. Men so learning rarely receive pay. A number of companies make charges for the training, but refund amounts paid if the employee remains with the company a certain length of time.
Wages for motormen and conductors are approximately the same, and in 1917 ranged from 15 to 45 cents per hour, with average between 25 and 30 cents for the entire country.[20] Advances in the past year have probably raised this average to 30 cents or above.
[20] Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics No. 204.
Men are usually promoted from the ranks of motormen and conductors to be inspectors or supervisors. They must have a thorough knowledge of operating conditions in the city, a knowledge that can be acquired only by considerable experience on the job as motorman or conductor making all routes in the city.
In electric street-railway operation, there are various other occupations, some of which require skilled workmen. The skilled workers include machinists, electrical workers, armature winders, carpenters, car repairers, linemen, track foremen, and inspectors. Since the other occupations are filled with men who are unskilled, or who are taught on the job, we are not concerned with them, as the training is not such as the Federal Board could easily give. With exception of inspectors, the work of these men does not differ materially from that of the shop men and track men on steam railroads. These have already been described above. In the shop work there is opportunity for the disabled soldier or sailor who has defective hearing, as well as for those who have lost a hand or leg. The work is usually lighter than on steam railroads, but wages are generally somewhat lower; the greater number of employees receive from 24 to 29 cents an hour.
In road and street transportation the main occupations are those of chauffeurs; proprietors and managers of taxicab concerns, livery stables, and transfer companies; foremen of livery and transfer companies; draymen; teamsters and expressmen; carriage and hack drivers; hostlers; and stable hands. The automobile is rapidly supplanting the horse and to such a degree as to affect the demand for labor in these several occupations, the demand declining in those dealing with the horse and increasing in those concerned with the automobile. Work in these occupations is not markedly seasonal, but is affected adversely by industrial depressions.
If a person is in business for himself, his outlay for equipment ranges from $500 upward, but if he is an employee the equipment is furnished by the employer.
A chauffeur may drive a taxicab, a truck, or a car for a private family. He needs good eyesight and hearing, and must not have nervous troubles. Loss of fingers or of a foot might not handicap a man for this work. It does not usually require much physical strength. Men who have suffered from chest trouble are frequently auto drivers in the Rocky Mountain States. This occupation gives them out-of-doors work that is light, and in a good climate in fair weather is highly beneficial and desirable for such persons.
Auto drivers should have some mechanical training and aptitude so that they may be able to make adjustments and repair minor defects in their machines. They should learn the roads and routes in their territory and allow a good margin of safety either in loads or speed. No great amount of training is required, and the work is largely manipulative. There are a number of schools in which this occupation is taught. Hours, wages, and working conditions are far from being standardized the country over. If you are interested in this work, you should find out what conditions prevail in the locality in which you wish to work.
Managers of taxicab companies must know the automobile thoroughly as well as the neighborhood from which they draw their trade. Only in a small concern does the keeper or manager need to be able to drive a car. It will, however, be advantageous at times if he can drive or repair a car. The greatest qualifications for success in this undertaking are ability and skill in handling men and money. Although the rate of profit is usually large in the business, there are many “leaks” to guard against. The manager must know how to keep accounts accurately, or at least understand them and be able to see that they are properly kept. The work requires business ability rather than physical activity, and so can be done by disabled soldiers or sailors who have this ability. Courtesy is a valuable asset, since the manager must come in contact with the public. It is this contact that makes deafness a handicap, particularly where much business is done over the telephone.
Practically the same thing may be said of proprietors and managers of livery and transfer companies. The proprietors and managers must have business ability and know how to manage men. Disabled men with these qualifications can undertake this business if none of their disabilities will interfere with business dealings. The field for auto delivery is developing rapidly, and will give a permanent occupation to the man who has the necessary qualifications for success.
Foremen of livery and transfer companies must have ability to handle men under conditions where immediate supervision is possible only a small part of the time. Accordingly, they must be able to judge what allowances should be made for loads, roads, horses, and equipment, or automobile in supervising drivers. Since the foremen must occasionally do the work of drivers, they must usually not be seriously disabled by loss of limbs, and since they must sometimes do the work of the manager they must not suffer from deafness.
Wages and hours are good on the average, but vary greatly in the different localities.
Draymen or expressmen may be either teamsters or auto drivers. In either case, ordinarily they have a considerable amount of heavy lifting to do. The loss of an eye, or of fingers, or of a foot need not prevent anyone from doing this work if he is otherwise physically strong. Very little training is required for the teamster. He must learn the streets and business houses, and how to manage horses that are usually well broken. All of this is best learned on the job. Wages are a little above those of unskilled labor. For the auto driver training may be acquired largely in a school. Wages are higher than those paid to teamsters.
Carriage and hack drivers must have good eyesight and hearing. The work is rather unskilled, although the handling of spirited horses does require some special skill. Courtesy is a distinct asset. It should be noted that the demand for carriage and hack drivers is declining rapidly, and accordingly the disabled soldier should not elect this occupation unless he has the assurance of permanent employment from some responsible employer.
Hostlers and stable hands are usually classed and paid as unskilled laborers, and for most disabled men the work is unsuitable. A disabled man should not work around vicious horses, and in large stables there are always some vicious horses.