Sir Walter Scott, in his account of the regalia, gives it as his opinion that the present crown was probably made for Robert Bruce at a later date, and that it was used at the coronation of his son, David II (1324–1376). The style of workmanship indicates a fourteenth-century origin. The crown was originally open and was arched over by James V (1512–1542). As Scott notes, this was done to many royal crowns in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, in order to assimilate them to the type of the old imperial crowns.

The following description is slightly abridged from that given by Sir Walter Scott:

The lower part consists of two circles, the undermost much broader than that which rises over it; both are of the purest gold and the uppermost is surmounted by a range of fleur-de-lis interchanged with crosses fleurées, and with knobs or pinnacles of gold topped with large pearls; this produces a very rich effect. The under and broader circle is adorned with twenty-two precious stones, betwixt each of which is interposed an oriental pearl. The stones are topazes, amethysts, emeralds, rubies and jacinths; they are not polished by the lapidary, or cut into facets in the more modern fashion, but are set plain, in the ancient style of jewellers’ work. The smaller circle is adorned with small diamonds and sapphires alternately. These two circles, thus ornamented, seem to have formed the original Diadem or Crown of Scotland, until the reign of James V, who added two imperial arches rising from the circle, and crossing each other, closing at the top in a mound of gold, which again is surmounted by a large cross patée ornamented with pearls and bearing the characters J.R.V. These additional arches are attached to the original crown by tacks of gold, and there is some inferiority in the quality of the metal.

The bonnet or tiara worn under the crown was anciently of purple, but is now of crimson velvet, turned up with ermine—a change first adopted in the year 1695. The tiara is adorned with four superb pearls set in gold, and fastened in the velvet which appears between the arches. The crown measures about nine inches in diameter, twenty-seven in circumference, and about six and a half in height from the bottom of the lower circle to the top of the cross.

The scepter, made by order of James V at the time he added the arches to the crown, is a slender silver rod about thirty-nine inches long. An antique capital of embossed leaves supports three small figures representing the Virgin Mary, St. Andrew, and St. James, above which is a crystal ball, surmounted by an oriental pearl.

The regalia have passed through many vicissitudes. After the execution of Charles I, his son Charles II was crowned King of Scotland at Scone on January 1, 1651. On the advance of the parliamentary army into Scotland, the regalia were placed in the care of the Earl Mareschal who preserved them in his castle of Dunrottar, and here they were kept until the castle was besieged and on the point of falling into the hands of the English. In this extremity, they were rescued by Christian Fletcher, wife of the Rev. James Granger, minister of Kinneff. She obtained permission from the English general to pay a visit to the Lady Mareschal and succeeded in carrying off the regalia. Her husband buried them in the church of Kinneff, just in front of the pulpit. When they were brought to light again after the Restoration, an Act of Parliament was passed which, after reciting Christian Fletcher’s services in the matter, stated: “Therefore, the King’s Majestie, with advice of his estates in Parliament, doe appoint Two Thousand Merks Scots to be forthwith paid unto her by his Majestie’s thresaurer, out of the readiest of his Majestie’s rents, as a testimony of their sense of her service.”

In 1707, after the union of England and Scotland, it was considered wiser to remove the regalia from public view, since they were calculated to arouse memories of the old Scotch monarchy. These precious objects were therefore inclosed in a chest, which was their usual receptacle, and locked up in the crown-room, a strong vaulted apartment in Edinburgh Castle. There the regalia remained until 1817, when, as doubts had been expressed as to their existence, a commission of investigation was appointed, one of the members being Sir Walter Scott. The chest—which had probably been the jewel-safe of the Stuarts—was forced open, and the regalia were found within, just as they had been deposited in 1707.

An imperial German crown does not exist; a design has been made and accepted, but at the present date, 1907, it has not yet been executed. On festive occasions, when the imperial insignia are necessary, the Prussian insignia are used, especially the Prussian royal crown. This consists of a circlet of gold set with thirteen diamonds. On this are five leaves, each composed of three larger diamonds and a smaller one, and four prongs, each bearing a diamond and above it a large pearl. From the five leaves start the same number of semicircular arches, tapering toward the central point, where they unite. Each of these is set with ten diamonds of decreasing size. On the center rests an imperial globe. It consists of a large Indian-cut sapphire,—the counterpart of the one on the Austrian imperial crown, evidently dating from the time of the Crusades,—and above it rises a chaplet ornamented with diamonds. The crown has a lining of purple velvet reaching to the arches. Between the arches are eight pearl pendants of an average weight of 80 grains; they are 25 millimeters in length, and have a fine, brilliant white color, although they are not perfectly regular in form.

In addition there belongs to the regalia a pearl necklace of three rows; the first consists of thirty-seven pearls averaging 28 grains each; the second of thirty-nine pearls averaging 34 grains, and the third of forty-five pearls averaging 39 grains. There is also a guard chain of 114 pearls, averaging 20 grains, making a total of 2280 grains for the chain. These pearls are also of irregular form.^[452]

The crown jewels of the Sultan Abdul-Aziz (1830–1876) were of immense richness and value. At the exhibition in Vienna, 1873, many of these were exhibited in a building created specially for the purposes of display and protection. They were in five compartments, in what might be termed five impregnable fire-proof safes of a peculiar construction. Among other interesting objects was the armor of Sultan Murad I (1319–1389), the founder of the Ottoman empire in Europe. This armor is of the most delicate oriental workmanship. Diamonds, pearls, and rubies are worked broadcast over it with exquisite taste.^[453]

In Germany and Austro-Hungary there are many valuable ecclesiastical ornaments, some of which possess great interest for the history of early German art. They also serve to show the appreciation of the pearl even in the Dark Ages and the Early Renaissance period.

One of the most curious productions of early German art is a reliquary in the form of a sack, which is from Enger near Herford, and is exhibited in the Kunstgewerbe Museum in Berlin. It is set with cameos and pearls; several of the latter have dropped out; a few, however, remain in their setting. According to a very probable tradition, this reliquary was given by Charlemagne to the Saxon duke, Wittekind, on the occasion of his baptism in 785. It is of very rude and primitive workmanship and, if we accept the tradition, it is not unlikely that it was executed at Aix-la-Chapelle.^[454]

An interesting example of German art, from the time of Archbishop Egbert of Treves (977–993), is a frame now in the Beuth-Schinkel Museum, at Charlottenburg. This was probably the framework of a portable altar. It is decorated with a simple geometrical design in the three primary colors, and has four polished stones and four pearls on the outer border of gold filigree. Another example of the art of Treves at the time of Archbishop Egbert is the Echternacher Codex. The gold-plated cover is a worthy product of the school: ivory, enamel, and mosaic are combined in its decoration with rows of pearls. Among the representations of many saints, appears the figure of the Empress Theophanu, daughter of the Greek emperor, Romanos II, with the inscription “Theophaniu imp.” Opposite is a youthful figure, probably that of her son, Otho III. It seems likely that the work was executed, at the command of the empress, between 983 and 991.^[455]

In the cathedral of Treves is the portable altar known as the altar of St. Andrew. This was primarily a reliquary and secondarily an altar. In memory of the relic of the sandal of St. Andrew, which was greatly prized by Archbishop Egbert, this altar bears the representation of a foot executed in wood and covered with plates of gold. The front of the case is divided into three fields; that in the middle containing a Byzantine lion in gold relief, and the others the symbols of the four evangelists in enamel work. The border is formed of rectangular pieces of enamel and smaller ones of gold, and it is set with round stones alternating with half-pearls; the ends are covered with filigree and enamel work wherein are embedded strings of pearls. A coin of Justinian II is set in the middle of the back of the case and is surrounded by a wreath of larger pearls.^[456]

A gold cross, the work of Rogkerus Theophilus, is in the Kunstgewerbe Museum in Berlin, and comes from Herford. The frame, which is of wood, is covered with plates of gold; at the extremities and in the center are groups of precious stones surrounded by pearls; at the base is a fine Augustan cameo with a wreath of pearls; the entire cross is covered with filigree work and decorated with pearls in groups of threes. The arrangement of the precious stones, and the enhancement of their beauty by means of the circles of pearls, are highly artistic. As a work of Rogkerus, this cross must have been executed at the very end of the eleventh century and it may be regarded as one of the finest examples of the art of this period.^[457]

A very rich collection of ecclesiastical ornaments is contained in the treasury of the cathedral of Gran in Hungary.^[458] One of the most interesting objects is a reliquary in the form of a Latin cross, which is of great historical and artistic value. An inventory made after 1528 describes it briefly: “crux aurea continens lignum vitae” (a gold cross containing the wood of life). Although this reliquary probably belongs to the end of the twelfth century, the inventory of 1659 describes it as a gift of King Stephen, and proceeds to say that the kings of Hungary took their coronation oath upon it. This custom has been preserved to the present day, and Emperor Francis Joseph, on the occasion of his coronation as King of Hungary, June 8, 1867, swore, upon this cross, to uphold the constitution and the laws of the land. The cross is decorated with plates of gold in filigree design, and has four en cabochon cut sapphires and eighteen oriental pearls.

The greatest treasure of the collection is known as the cross of Corvinus, King of Hungary, and is decorated with a great number of pearls.^[459] It is a remarkable example of early Italian Renaissance art. The entire structure is about twenty-eight inches high; the pedestal is triangular and ornamented with pearls and precious stones; three sphinxes bearing shields with the arms of Corvinus support a disk from which springs a triangular support sloping outward; on the three sides are mythological figures. Upon this base rests the chapel, a light Gothic structure with the figure of the Saviour bound to a pillar in the center, and the busts of three prophets in the niches outside. Above all is the crucifix, on each side of which are figures of the Blessed Virgin and of St. John. Around the base and about each division of this elaborate design is a row of pearls; the Gothic chapel is surmounted by a close-set row, and each of its six pinnacles terminates in an oval pearl. The cross itself has fifteen large pearls disposed in twos and threes, and many smaller ones. There are at least two hundred pearls on the whole structure.

Another cross, with the arms of the primate, George Szolepchényi, and bearing the date 1667, is of pure design and richly decorated with pearls and precious stones.^[460] It is quite possible that this cross, which seems to belong to a better period, was bought by the archbishop, who afterward added his arms. There are thirteen oriental pearls, three at the top, three at the end of each of the arms, and four at the intersection. This cross was used as an “instrumentum pacis,” for the kiss of peace, on solemn occasions such as coronations.

We may also note the pendant with the image of the Virgin Mary as patroness of Hungary, which is of gold enamel and has two pendant pearls and a sapphire, and likewise the pectoral cross of the primate, Emerich Losy; this is of gold, decorated with green, blue, and black enamel, and has three pendant pear-shaped pearls, one quite large, as well as thirty-four smaller round pearls.

Among the many valuable and interesting objects in the treasury of the house and chapel of Maria Loretto am Hradschin,^[461] at Prague, there is a monstrance of silver-gilt, thirty-seven and a half inches high and fifteen and three quarter inches wide. It dates from the beginning of the eighteenth century, and is not a harmonious whole, but only a combination of different ornaments of precious stones, corals, and several hundred pearls of various sizes. All these are the devotional offerings of now unknown givers, and many of the pieces are of artistic workmanship. This monstrance owes its origin to Josef von Bilin, who was a monk of the Capuchin order and a sacristan of Maria Loretto. On account of the many pearls which adorn it, it is known by the name of the “Pearl Monstrance.”

Another monstrance of Arabic gold, of the year 1680, is twenty inches high and is studded with fifty-one pearls, of which twenty-nine surround the disk, while the remainder are on the plate and the base. There are also two crowns of silver-gilt for the statues of the Virgin and of the Infant Jesus. The larger of these crowns has eighteen diamonds, a ruby, and 102 pearls set in two rows; while the smaller has nineteen diamonds and a great number of pearls; both crowns are made up of the offerings of the faithful.

In a historic description of the pearls in the treasury of the Kremlin, Margeret, a Burgundian captain (“Estat de l’empire de Russie,” 1649), says that the treasury was “full of all kinds of jewels, principally pearls, for they are worn in Russia more than in the rest of Europe. I have seen fifty changes of raiment for the emperors around each of which there were jewels for a bordering, and the robes were entirely bordered with pearls, some with a border of pearls measuring a foot, half a foot, or four inches in width. I have seen dozens of bed-coverings embroidered with pearls.”^[462]

In the treasury of the celebrated Troiza Monastery near Moscow, there is an immense collection of ornamental objects for ecclesiastical use, the value of which has been estimated at many millions of rubles. Here may be seen miters and bishops’ crooks—many of them of solid gold and set with precious stones—Bibles and missals in golden bindings, priestly vestments, altar-cloths, etc., all literally covered with pearls. There is also a dish filled with large pearls of enormous value.^[463]

The use of fresh-water pearls in one of the most interesting ecclesiastical objects of antiquity is shown in the “Shrine of St. Patrick’s Gospels,” which is in the Dublin Museum. It was purchased by the Irish Royal Academy in 1845 for £300 ($1500). This shrine, known as the “domnach airgid,” is of Irish manufacture and was perhaps made in the eleventh or twelfth century. It was found in the neighborhood of Clones, in County Monaghan, and is ornamented with three bosses which contained uncut crystals, and are decorated with figures of grotesque animals and traceries enameled in blue paste; between these may be seen representations of four horsemen. On each of the four corners there was a fresh-water pearl, one of which still remains in its setting. According to George Petrie, LL.D., in his “Christian Inscriptions in the Irish Language,” the shrine bears an inscription to the effect that it was made by John O’Barrdan at the instance of John O’Carbry, Abbot of Clones, who died in 1353.

Dr. R. F. Scharff informs us that there is also in the Dublin Museum a modern Celtic gold brooch, presented to Queen Victoria on the occasion of her visit to Ireland in 1849, and containing a pearl of beautiful luster, discovered in Lough Esk, which is in the western part of Ireland. Dr. Scharff says that this pearl is undoubtedly from the Margaritifera margaritifera.

Mr. W. Forbes Howie of Dublin writes that the shrine of O’Donnel, made in 1084, originally contained pearls. It still retains some pieces of amber and coral. Mr. Howie believes that fresh-water pearls were freely used in the decoration of ancient Irish shrines.

The inventories of jewels and ornaments belonging to the kings and queens of France, to the nobility, and to the treasures of the Sainte-Chapelle, in Paris, and of the abbey and church of St. Denis, all mention a large number of objects decorated with pearls.^[464] The more important of these are given below.

The following ornaments decorated with pearls are mentioned in the inventory of Louis, Duke of Anjou, which was made circa 1360:^[465]

A large silver-gilt foot for a vase or chalice, resting upon six lions couchant, and set with groups of four pearls with a garnet in the middle.

A half girdle of gold with a hinge bearing two ornaments, one a balas set between two eagles. Between the ornaments is a gold bar set with eight pearls in two rows. In front is a clasp with a large sapphire in the middle, surrounded by two balases and two sapphires alternating with pearls.

A gold brooch having a balas-ruby in the middle, and at each side four sapphires and four clusters each of five quite large pearls.

A gold brooch of a very pretty design, with five balas-rubies, two sapphires, and eight very round pearls weighing about four carats each. At each end of the brooch is a flat pearl weighing about five carats.

There is in the Bibliothèque Nationale^[466] in Paris, the original record of the execution of the testament of the Comte de Montpensier, son of the Duc de Berri. This document was written in 1398, and it mentions that the sale of the jewels and plate of the count produced the sum of “2390 livres tournois 11 sols 3 deniers [about $8265].” In the record we have a description of “a large gold cup, weighing 5 marcs, 7 ounces, 1 gros [nearly 3 lbs.], whereon there is a crown of precious stones.” The decoration of the cup comprised thirty large pearls, six balas-rubies, and four sapphires, and we are told that the Duc de Berri retained it for his own use.

An early mention of the use of pearls in rings occurs in the inventory of the Duc de Berri,^[467] to whom we have just referred. This inventory, which was made in 1416, notes a gold ring with black enamel, set with a pearl called “the great pearl of Berri.”

The inventory of the personal property of Marguerite, Countess of Flanders, the mother of the Duke of Burgundy, was made in 1405.^[468] In this inventory we have a list of an immense number of ornamental objects of every sort and kind, and everything, from the ducal crown to the smallest trinket, is garnished with pearls. In most cases the number of pearls is given, and we find that no less than 4494 are enumerated. Evidently the duchess was ever ready to honor the precious gem to which she owed her name, and fully recognized its poetical significance. The following are a few of the more noteworthy ornaments in the inventory:

The circlet of the great crown, composed of eight sections; four of which each comprise sixteen pearls, four diamonds, and four balas-rubies, with a sapphire in the center; the four others contain sixteen pearls, four diamonds, and four sapphires, with a balas-ruby in the center; beside this there are two pearls in each section. Also, eight large fleurons of the great crown, four of which bear each twenty-three pearls, five diamonds, three balas-rubies and a sapphire, and the other four each twenty-three pearls, five diamonds, four sapphires, and a balas-ruby; and eight small fleurons of the said crown garnished each with a pearl, a sapphire, and a balas-ruby. The whole is valued at 8724 florins ($22,682).

A gold cap with ten large ornaments fashioned like brooches, five of which are each of six pearls and a balas-ruby, and the other five each of five pearls and two balas-rubies, and between each ornament there is a balas-ruby. This is appraised at 2159 florins ($5613).

A head-dress garnished with balas-rubies and sapphires and tassels of large pearls, each of six pearls, and with a row of larger balas-rubies, larger sapphires and larger pearls. This was estimated at 2030 florins ($5278).

A gold necklace, enameled white and green, garnished with nine rubies, thirteen diamonds and thirteen pearls, with a clasp of three small rubies, and three large pearls with one large diamond in the center. The worth of this necklace is given as 1923 florins ($5000).

The jewels and ornamental objects in this inventory are appraised at the sum of 56,129 florins,—about $145,000,—equivalent to a much larger sum to-day in consideration of the greater purchasing power of money in the fifteenth century.

In 1480, during the reign of Louis XI, an inventory was made of the objects preserved in the treasury of the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris.^[469] We select the following items from this inventory:

A very beautiful cross, covered with gold, bearing on one side a crystal reliquary which contained a piece of the True Cross. On supports attached to the cross were images of the Virgin Mary and of St. John, each holding a reliquary. The cross itself rested on a square silver-gilt base bearing the images of the four evangelists. The ornamentation consisted of fifty large Scotch pearls and 142 small ones, intermixed with garnets and emeralds; there were also many balas-rubies and sapphires of different sizes. The inventory says: “The goldsmith Nicholas Roet declares that the stones are genuine and that the pearls are from Scotland.”

Another gold cross, resting on a silver-gilt base which bore the arms of France and Burgundy, was decorated with fourteen sapphires, twenty balas-rubies, and twenty-four Scotch pearls. On the base were the figures of St. Louis and of the queen, kneeling in prayer.

Still another cross, covered with gold and of Venetian workmanship, bore thirty-nine pearls, twenty-seven balas-rubies, and four sapphires. A clasp attached to this cross was set with four large perforated pearls surrounded by small emeralds and sapphires.

A silver-gilt ornament, consisting of a golden image of St. Louis seated on a silver throne and holding in his hand a reliquary decorated with twelve pearls, six emeralds, and six Alexandrian rubies. The crown of the image was set with four large oriental pearls, three balas-rubies, etc.

An ivory image of the Virgin Mary, supported by a silver-gilt base with the arms of France. This base was borne by four lions. On the head of the Virgin was a crown of gold adorned with eight large, round, oriental pearls and four small ones, as well as four emeralds and four balas-rubies. On the breast of the image was a very large, square emerald.

A splendid miter studded with good-sized pearls and decorated with emeralds, rubies, sapphires, and balas-rubies. The pendants were covered with seed-pearls and precious stones.

A fine chasuble of Indian satin lined with crimson taffeta and covered with lilies, birds, unicorns, etc., embroidered in gold and pearls. It was also adorned with small clusters of pearls and with two shields bearing the arms of France and Navarre, quartered.

A beautiful copy of the gospels with covers of gold, ornamented with fourteen large sapphires, thirteen balas-rubies, two cameos, and eighty-nine good-sized pearls.

The following items are taken from the inventory of the treasury of the abbey of St. Denis, made in 1534, during the reign of Francis I. This record is in the Bibliothèque Nationale, in Paris:^[470]

A crown of gold, with four fleurons, garnished with several balas-rubies, emeralds, sapphires, and pearls; valued at 59,980 crowns (about $135,000).

A golden cross and within it a piece of the True Cross which belonged to “Jeanne d’Evreux, royne de France et de Navarre,” valued, with the pearls that decorate it, at 345 crowns ($776).

A wooden chest containing eleven cases in which were many precious stones and large and small pearls, both oriental and Scotch; valued at 1858 crowns ($4180).

A number of priestly vestments embroidered with seed-pearls are inventoried at 1200 crowns ($2700).

A blue satin chasuble bordered with pearls is valued at 350 crowns ($787).

An altar-table, set in the “grand altar,” is described as elaborately decorated with “arches and pillars and images of gold” in low relief, and garnished with precious stones and pearls. The value is given as 1203 crowns ($2700).

Another altar-table similarly ornamented is valued at 2645 crowns ($5850). Above this table was a great cross of gold with a silver border, called the “cross of St. Eloysius” (the patron saint of goldsmiths); this was valued at 2291 crowns ($5154).

Over the sarcophagus containing the body of St. Denis, there was “a large tabernacle of wood-work resembling a church, with a lofty nave and low arches.” In this nave and in the transepts there were three representations of sarcophagi; the whole was covered with gold, precious stones, and pearls, and was valued at 7275 crowns ($16,368).

The head of St. Denis, incased in gold, was borne by two silver-gilt angels, while a third held a small shrine containing a portion of the jaw-bone of the saint. All these objects were studded with precious stones and pearls, and were valued at 5622 crowns ($12,650).

There were also in the treasury several miters covered with “ounce-pearls” and decorated with gold and silver bands; on this field several larger pearls were set. One of these miters is valued at 964 crowns ($2169) and another at 509 crowns ($1135).

The total value of the articles inventoried is 185,500 crowns (at least $417,375).

Inventories of the property of the dukes of Lorraine, dated 1544, 1552, and 1614, mention a number of pearl ornaments. In the inventory of 1544, made about the time of the accession of Francis I of Lorraine, we read of “a very fine case of silver-gilt around which are thirteen personages in gold, and on the lock three balases and five pearls.” The inventory of 1552, made while Charles II was duke, mentions “a cap of crimson velvet whereon there are large pearls,” and another cap “entirely covered with pearls.” It is, however, in the inventory of 1614, made a few years after the accession of Henry II of Lorraine, that we find the greatest number of items relating to pearls. An estimate of the value of the rings and jewels was “faicte du commandement de son Altèze par jouailliers et Lapidaires et Espertz dudit ars.” All these jewels were to remain forever the property of the Duchy of Lorraine. Among the items relating to pearls, the following are worthy of note:

A gold collar with seven settings, each containing one large diamond and two large pearls. The diamond in the center was believed to weigh fifteen carats, and the collar was valued at 35,000 crowns (about $70,000).

Another collar contained seven diamonds and sixteen pearls set in pairs, and was considered to be worth 19,750 crowns (about $40,000).

A collection of one hundred large pearls, some weighing twenty grains, some twenty-four, some twenty-eight, and a few thirty-two grains, were estimated at 12,000 crowns ($24,000).

A large pearl, very nearly pear-shaped and almost as large as a pigeon’s egg, was set down at 2000 crowns ($4000).

A very fine pear-shaped pearl weighing forty-eight grains was valued at 800 crowns ($1600).

Another pear-shaped pearl weighing about thirty-two grains was placed at 500 crowns ($1000).

Four other pear-shaped pearls, nearly as large as the one above mentioned, were estimated at 300 crowns ($600), while a round “pearl of Seville” was valued at only fifty crowns ($100).

Six clusters of pearls, each containing two of fourteen grains, and four of eight grains, were thought to be worth 700 crowns ($1400).

A large chalice was decorated with seven large oriental emeralds and eight clusters, each composed of fourteen fine, round pearls, six of twelve grains and eight of eight grains; the whole valued at 2400 crowns ($4800).

A hat ornament composed of eleven fine rubies and ten large, round pearls, each weighing twelve grains, was estimated at 800 crowns ($1600).

A similar ornament, composed of thirteen rubies and fourteen pearls, partly flat and partly round, was placed at 2000 crowns ($4000).

A collar set with seven fine rubies and the same number of round pearls, each weighing twelve grains, and with seven other pendant pearls, was valued at 550 crowns ($1100).

There was also a bed called the “bed of pearls,” which was elaborately decorated with ornamentation in gold and richly studded with pearls.

The inventory made in 1634 of the ornaments, etc., contained in the abbey of St. Denis, offers some new material and a fuller description of a few of the objects mentioned in the inventory of 1534. The most noteworthy entries are given below:

A golden scepter upon a staff of wood. The scepter bears the figure of Charlemagne seated upon a throne; at the corners are two lions and two eagles (one of the latter was lacking in 1634). The figure holds a scepter in its right hand, and a globe surmounted by a cross in its left; on its head is a crown with a large, round, oriental pearl valued at 200 livres ($135). The throne rested on a fleur-de-lys, beneath which was a ball of gold ornamented with eight oriental pearls. Around the throne was the inscription: “Sanctus Carolus Magnus Italia Roma Gallia Germania,” and three clusters of three pearls each. The value of this scepter was given at 3300 livres, or about $2200.

The reliquary of the hand of St. Thomas. Two angels, resting on a silver-gilt base, bore the crystal receptacle containing the relic. The ornamentation consisted of eight clusters of four large pearls each, with a small diamond in the center. On the hand was a gold band bearing the inscription: “Hic est manus beati Thomae apti. quam misit in latus domini nostri Jesu Christi.” On the hand was a pontifical ring set with a large sapphire. The reliquary also bore the images of St. John the Baptist, of St. Thomas, and of the Virgin Mary. It was valued at 5590 livres, or about $3700.

A vessel made of a porphyry resembling jasper and embellished with forty-six pearls; estimated at 1500 livres ($1000).

A cope given by Anne of Bretagne, Queen of France, and bearing six scenes from the life of the Virgin Mary embroidered in gold and pearls; the whole bordered with pearls and gold of Cyprus. On the cope were the letters A and S, and the words “plutost mourir.” There were two ounces of pearls. Valued at 2000 livres ($1350).

A vase of rock crystal, of antique workmanship, with a cover and base of silver-gilt; the top decorated with a band of amethysts, garnets, and sapphires, alternating with Scotch and oriental pearls. On the base are various precious stones and twenty-three Scotch and oriental pearls, and the inscription “Hoc vas sponsa dedit Anor. regi Ludovico.” This vase was given by Eleanor of Aquitaine to her husband, Louis VII of France (1137–1180), by whom it was bestowed upon Suger, Abbot of St. Denis (1082–1152). The goldsmith work and decoration belong to the time of Suger. The vase is now in the Louvre.

A chalice of agate, with two handles, and engraved with the figures of men, animals, and birds. It stood on a foot of gold adorned with sixteen sapphires, forty-four pearls, and twenty-two clusters of fourteen pearls each. This chalice rested upon a paten of porphyry decorated with seven fishes inlaid in gold, and with a bordering of pearls and precious stones disposed around the edge. Both together valued at 25,000 livres (about $16,000).

A vase of agate with a foot of silver-gilt, and furnished with a cover and a spout in the form of a serpent, both of silver-gilt. Around the base an inscription: “Dum libare deo gemmis debemus et auro, Hoc ego Sugerus offero vas domino” (Since we should pour libations to God out of gems and gold, I, Suger, offer this vessel to the Lord). This vase, which is now in the Louvre and is of sardonyx, was enriched with many precious stones and with nineteen Scotch and oriental pearls. The value given was 1500 livres (about $1000).

A book beginning: “Kyrie Eleison,” with covers of wood, one overlaid with gold and the other with silver. On the golden cover was an ivory crucifix, and images, in ivory, of the Virgin Mary and of St. John. The cross was bordered with seed-pearls, as were the diadems of the images. The cover was also decorated with an engraved crysolite, an engraved peridot, and with sapphires, emeralds, and garnets.^[471]

A curious item regarding the use of pearls in embroidery is contained in one of the inventories of the dukes of Burgundy, made in 1414; this reads as follows:

The sum of 276 livres 7 sols 6 deniers tournois (about $960), the price of 960 pearls destined to ornament a dress; along the sleeves are embroidered the words of the song “Madame, je suis joyeulx,” and the notes are also marked along the sleeves. On each sleeve are 264 pearls which help in forming the notes of the said song, numbering 142; that is to say, a square made of four pearls for each note.^[472]

Mention is made in two old French documents of the use of pearls from Compiegne in ornamentation. In the “Inventaire de la royne Clémence,” in 1328, we read of “a cock covered with precious stones and bearing a pearl of Compiègne”; and in the “Comptes Royaux,” under date of 1353, appears this item: “For four pearls, oriental, Scotch and of Compiègne, for the said arm-chair, 48 crowns.” As these pearls could not have been found in Compiègne, we may suppose that there was a market for their sale in that place, which gave rise to the designation.^[473]

The English authority and writer on early English silver, F. Alfred Jones, communicated, under date of September, 1907, that pearls were rarely used in old English plate; in fact, any such embellishments were of exceedingly infrequent occurrence. They are, however, frequently mentioned in the inventory of the marvelous collection of gold plate dispersed by Charles I of England, which may have dated from the time of the looting of the churches and monasteries by Henry VIII.

The following items are from the inventories of Philip II of Spain and of Margarita, wife of Philip III. The original documents are in the Austrian archives.

A golden cup which came from England. Around the foot was a wreath of fifteen fleurons, each containing pearls, and also four St. Andrew’s crosses comprising eighteen pearls each. The interior of the cup showed scenes from the life of St. George and was studded with pearls, while thirty-one pearl pendants hung from the edge. 11,897 reals (about $1700).^[474]

Some curious jewels, belonging to Queen Margarita, wife of Philip III of Spain, were entered in an inventory made in 1611.

An imperial eagle, full of diamonds, that came from England, with two pendants of two pearls, which could be unhooked from the said eagle and were worn by her Majesty at two masks as earrings. Valued at 77,000 reals (about $11,000).

Gold earrings, enameled in various colors, with seven diamonds in each one and three pendant pearls, two small ones of equal size and the other shaped like a pear. Valued at 1320 reals ($188).^[475]

In the older Spanish jewelry pearls were frequently entirely pierced through, as if they had been worn in necklaces; and if hung as drops of one to three or more, they were strung on a wire, the upper end usually forming an ornament, and they were kept from falling off below by flattening the lower end of the wire, this flattening acting as a stop. These styles have a marked resemblance to the oriental methods elsewhere described, and suggest the derivation of the early Spanish pearl mounting from the Moorish occupation of the country. If they were set singly on any part of the jewel, they were put on a wire peg fastened to it, and then the end of the wire which projected was hammered flat to keep the pearl in place. Excellent examples of these styles are the Spanish earrings in the collection of the Hispano-American Museum of New York. The same method was used in Transylvania in the seventeenth century with remarkably artistic effect.

The pearls of the Virgin of the Rosary in the church of St. Domingo, Lima, were famous. It is believed that they were sold in the war of independence. Those of the monstrance in the sanctuary of the cathedral of Lima were sold during the last war with Chile. The monstrance of the cathedral of Cuzco still shows pearls and emeralds, but they are of small size.

A lady who left a great fortune in pearls to the church of Nazareno and the House of the Poor of the church of St. Peter, Lima, was Doña Maria Fernandez de Córdoba, from the family of Borda, grandmother to the minister of Peru in Washington. She was a descendant of Hernan Cortés and of Pizarro by her ancestor Carmen Cortés.

The pearls of Lima figure prominently in the history of the Peruvian families. The war of independence, which ended in 1822, was followed by the suppression of the entailed estates; this forced a division of the family fortunes, and it became necessary to sell the family jewels in Europe. Thither went all the famous pearls of the Peruvian aristocracy, whose luxury is proven by the fact that in 1780 there were in Lima no less than two thousand private carriages.

One of the most remarkable uses of Bohemian pearls was that of a large triptych owned by Count Moritz of Lobkowitz and Duke of Raudnitz. It measured six or more feet in height. The entire borders were ornamented with pearls. The center of the triptych represented the ascension of Christ on a chariot drawn by lambs. In the panel to the right was the Angel Gabriel, and to the left the Virgin Mary praying. The borders and lettering were magnificently embroidered and decorated in Bohemian pearls. This object probably dated from the sixteenth or early part of the seventeenth century. It was estimated by one of the authors to contain at least one hundred thousand pearls.

Madame Zelie Nuttal, the great Maya scholar, personally writes that pearls are not mentioned either as articles of tribute or of decoration in ancient Mexican codices; possibly a lack of fine, hard instruments with which to drill holes in pearls may have caused them to be comparatively little used in personal adornment. Neither do they appear to have been found incrusted in prehistoric objects, and we have no written evidence of their having been used in this way. We do not know of any instances of the wearing of pearls by the Indian women, but the women of the higher classes used to wear them profusely, more especially drop-earrings and pendants. Madame Nuttal also communicates as follows:

Bernadino de Sahagun states: “There are also pearls in New Spain, and they are familiar to everybody. They are named epyollotti,^[476] which means the heart of the shell, because they are formed in the shell of the oyster.” In Molina’s dictionary “seed-pearls” are named “piciltic epyollotti,” which means “water-stars,” a poetical name, composed of the word a = att = water, and cittallin = star. The latter name leads us to infer the possibility that the “star-skirt, or skirt of, or with stars,” the “cittallin icue” of the living image of the goddess “Tlamateculitti” was decorated with pearls, although it is only described (Book II, chap. 36) as being “of leather, cut into strips at the bottom (forming a fringe), at the end of each of which hung a small shell named ‘cueclitti’ which reproduced a sound when she walked.” As it is stated that this “star-skirt” was worn over “a white one” it seems as though it must have been of the kind, represented in codices and sculptures, made of openwork and netlike, and studded with round objects—possibly pearls—at the crossings or in the centers of the open spaces.

Oil-paintings of the madonnas represent them with robes richly embroidered with pearls, and wearing “ropes of pearls.” The Virgin of the Rosario, in the church at Santo Domingo, Mexico, was noted for her pearls, and there is a small oil-painting of this virgin, in which she is depicted with a wealth of pearls.

In the Bohemian National Exposition, held at Prague in 1891, Count Schwarzenberg exhibited four embroideries, each fourteen by eight inches. They were embroidered with Bohemian pearls found on his domains a century or more previous, and contained many thousands of pearls.

In Hungary pearls have always been the favorite jewels, especially among the aristocracy, and they have served to adorn the national costume of both men and women. A century ago nearly every family of distinction owned a necklace, but most of the pearls were small and of indifferent quality. Since that time fine pearls have become more usual, and many wealthy Hungarian families have acquired beautiful pearls of good size and excellent quality, and many splendid necklaces can now be seen in Hungary. The following are some of the finest:

A necklace of three large rows, owned by the Archduke Joseph and valued at one million francs.

A still larger necklace in the possession of Prince Nicholas Esterhazy; this, however, is an entailed heirloom, and may not be parted with without the king’s permission.

A very fine necklace of five rows, also an entailed heirloom, owned by Count Maurice Esterhazy.

A large necklace, possessed by Countess Alois Karoly, wife of the late ambassador in London. This is another entailed heirloom; its value is at least a million and a half francs.

An unusually large necklace of four rows, such as one rarely sees, owned by the Countess Wenkheim. The pearls are white, and have a good shape, but not much brilliancy. The average size of these pearls is approximately twenty-four grains.

An equally large necklace consisting of a single row, averaging twenty-six grains, in the possession of Countess Louis Batthyani.

There are a great many other necklaces of fine quality, worth from 300,000 francs down to 100,000 francs, belonging to families such as those of Count Joseph Hunyadi, Countess Festetics-Hamilton, Count Landor Nako, Peer Leo Lanczi, Count Albert Apponyi, Mr. Eugene Dreher, Madame Emma de Bachrach, etc., etc. Indeed, almost every wealthy family of the better class owns a necklace worth up to 100,000 francs and over.