Having thus cast a rapid glance over the principal articles, natural or artificial, which commerce derived from Europe and Asia Minor, we shall pass over into Africa, in order, as nearly as possible, to ascertain what that part of the world contributed to the trade of antiquity. We shall then proceed by way of Egypt into Syria and Arabia, and from thence to Persia, India, and the farther regions of Asia, with which we will conclude our view of the commerce of the Greeks. Numerous articles of merchandise of the highest value were, from very early ages, obtained from Africa;^[2398] as gold in ingots, and gold dust, ivory,^[2399] blocks of ebony and black slaves.^[2400] The ancients have remarked, that a piece of green ebony placed near the fire kindled, and rubbed against a stone assumed a reddish colour.^[2401] In some parts of the country elephants’ teeth were so plentiful, that the very cattle-sheds were enclosed with palings of ivory;^[2402] and the present of the Æthiopians to the Persian king^[2403] consisted of twelve elephants’ teeth, two hundred blocks of ebony, five black slaves, and a quantity of unwrought gold.^[2404] From this country were exported linen or flax, medicinal roots, perfumes, and aromatic spices.^[2405]

According to the information furnished to Herodotus by the Carthaginians, there was anciently a lake in the small island of Kerkenna, out of which the young women drew up gold dust with bunches of feathers.^[2406] Africa, likewise, supplied alum,^[2407] salt,^[2408] sory-stone,^[2409] cinnabar,^[2410] hexecontalithoi,^[2411] blood-stones, eagle-stones, black palmati, and magnets.^[2412] Anciently even diamonds are said to have been obtained from certain mines in Æthiopia, lying between the temple of Hermes and the island of Meroe.^[2413]

A purple, rivalling that of Tyre,^[2414] was produced from a fish caught along the northern coast. Hence, also, were obtained kermes^[2415] and ostrich feathers, with which the crests of helmets were sometimes adorned. Monkeys^[2416] were commonly imported from Africa, together with Æthiopian sheep, a species of fowl,^[2417] and various kinds of locusts^[2418] which, eaten by the inhabitants only, figured among the materia medica of the Greeks. Dried and burnt, their smoke was snuffed up for certain complaints, and, reduced to powder, they were drunk in Rome as a remedy against the bite of a scorpion.^[2419]

Slabs of citron-wood, used principally in the making of tables, seem to have been obtained exclusively from this part of the world,^[2420] which, likewise, furnished various kinds of beautiful marbles. Fine carbuncles for seals were obtained from the neighbourhood of Carthage,^[2421] as were the emerald and the bastard emerald from a small island called Cothon, opposite that part of the coast.

The gum ammoniac distils in a milky juice^[2422] from an umbelliferous plant growing in the desert near the oracle of Jupiter Ammon, as well as on the confines of Cyrenè, whence it appears to have been chiefly exported.^[2423]

In the same country grew the silphion,^[2424] which, according to tradition, was not indigenous to the soil, but sprang up suddenly for the first time after a violent tempest.^[2425] If we can rely on this relation we must suppose the seed to have been borne thither by the winds, probably from some part of the interior. Both the root and the juice were exported, sometimes adulterated with bean-flowers or gum sagapenum. Marmarica supplied an extremely pungent kind of capparis,^[2426] which, also, was found on the shores of the Red Sea. The wild asparagus flourished abundantly in this country, and attained a great height.^[2427]

From Cyrenaica came an inferior sort of saffron,^[2428] with truffles of a very delicate flavour,^[2429] some of which were of a reddish hue,^[2430] the best white hellebore,^[2431] heraclean all-heal,^[2432] the herb alysson from Africa generally,^[2433] with gum-ladanum,^[2434] olive oil,^[2435] iris roots,^[2436] and terebinth berries.^[2437] In the country of the Troglodytes, on the western part of the Red Sea, were groves of myrrh trees, the gum of which was of a palish green, pellucid, and of a biting taste.^[2438]

The euphorbium,^[2439] which received its name from Euphorbius, physician to king Juba, who discovered the virtues of its juices, is found on Mount Atlas, and in most parts of northern Africa. In procuring this substance they spread a number of sheepskins round the shrub, which they then pierced with darts or lances from a distance, in order to avoid the penetrating noxious vapours which exhaled from it at its first coming in contact with the air. The same precaution, according to a modern traveller, is still practised.

Carthage traded generally in all the productions of the ancient world, her exports consequently were numerous, and among these were magnificent tapestry and richly figured pillows.^[2440] From the same part of Africa were exported a superior kind of snails.^[2441] Horses, hides,^[2442] and hams cured in a particular manner, were supplied by Cyrenè,^[2443] together with the best unguent of roses.^[2444] This country was likewise famous for its fragrant violets and saffron flowers.^[2445] The horns of the oryx were exported to Phœnicia, where they were employed in constructing the sides of citharæ.^[2446] The scink, whose flesh was used as an antidote and in aphrodisiacs, was exported from the neighbourhood of mount Atlas, where it attained the length of four feet and a half.^[2447] The Carthaginians, who sailed down the western shore of Africa to the gold coast, used to trade with the natives without personal communication. Landing from their ships they deposited a quantity of merchandise on the ground and retired on board, where they kindled large fires, that their coming might be announced by the smoke; upon this the natives approached, and laid close by what they conceived to be the value of the articles in gold. If what they brought satisfied the Carthaginians, they took away the gold and left the merchandise; if not, they suffered the whole to remain; upon which the natives added a quantity of the precious metal, until the strangers were satisfied.^[2448] Similar rules are observed by the Moors in trading with the negroes in various parts of this continent.

On nearly the whole coast of northern Africa flourished the lotus tree, the fruit of which constituted the principal subsistence of some of the natives, who likewise made from it a kind of wine which could not be exported, since it turned sour in three days. The nourishing quality of this fruit was experienced by the army of Ophella,^[2449] which proceeding across the desert, to attack the Carthaginians, was reduced to subsist upon it entirely for several days. It is about the size of a white cherry and straw-coloured, excepting on the side next the sun, which has a ruddy blush: the best are said to be without stones, but those which are produced in the Saïd have very large ones. Whether it has yet been introduced into England I know not; I myself, however, made the attempt in pots placed in a warm room; but on the first frosty night of autumn the plants perished entirely, with all the silk trees I had planted at the same time. From the same part of the country was obtained the lotus plant, used in cosmetics and medicines.^[2450]

From Egypt, which we shall here consider apart from the rest of Africa, the most valuable exports were undoubtedly wheat^[2451] and rice,^[2452] after which, in later ages, the wines of Lake Mareotis,^[2453] and several cities along the Nile, deserve to be enumerated. The seeds of the bitter cabbage of Egypt^[2454] were exported to be employed in medicine. Marjoram, too, was obtained from this country,^[2455] together with the odoriferous rush;^[2456] the creeping inula,^[2457] cœrulescent wormwood,^[2458] the arisaron,^[2459] garlic,^[2460] the acacalis, or berry of a certain shrub used in remedies against ophthalmia,^[2461] myrobalans,^[2462] amomum,^[2463] cumin,^[2464] gum-acacia, transparent as glass,^[2465] and the leaves and flowers of the Eastern privet.^[2466]

It is possible, that the sensitive plant was introduced into Greece from Egypt, since this appears to be the native country of all the acacia tribe, to which the sensitive plant belongs; and we find it to have been plentifully produced in the neighbourhood of Memphis.^[2467] Both the seeds and flowers of the tamarisk were used in medicine,^[2468] and of its wood were made cups, which were supposed to impart a medicinal virtue to whatever was drunk out of them.

From dill,^[2469] which was exported from Egypt and other countries, a perfume was made, which was supposed to mitigate the acuteness of the headache. Other kinds of perfume^[2470] were likewise manufactured in this country,^[2471] of which that called metopion, chiefly composed of galbanum,^[2472] and the unguent of lilies may be regarded as the principal.^[2473]

Egypt, likewise, exported paper,^[2474] sails, curiously wrought linen breastplates,^[2475] linen^[2476] and cotton^[2477] cloths, jars,^[2478] salt, lobsters, Canopic muscles, Venus’s ears,^[2479] the shad,^[2480] dates, mustard,^[2481] vinegar,^[2482] palm wine,^[2483] and salt provisions.^[2484] The scink, or land crocodile, was likewise furnished by Egypt.^[2485] The game-cocks of Alexandria, which appear to have been held in the highest estimation were doubtless exported.^[2486] The Egyptian oil stunk because no salt was used in the making of it.^[2487] Upon the fields of Egypt, at the period of the inundation, was found in great plenty the nymphæa lotus, with its white flower, which was said to remain open so long as the sun continued above the horizon, but closed at the approach of twilight, and dipped its whole head beneath the water, where it remained concealed till sunrise, when it rose and spread its petals to the dawn. The roots of this plant, about the size of a quince, and in taste like the yolk of an egg, when cooked, were eaten by the Egyptians, who with its seed made also a kind of bread.^[2488]

Among the minerals and precious stones obtained from this country were the sory,^[2489] the bloodstone,^[2490] the emerald,^[2491] and the carbuncle. Lapis lazuli was manufactured in Egypt,^[2492] the secret of imitating nature in the produce of this substance having been discovered by one of its kings. In the neighbourhood of Memphis was found a sort of variegated pebbles, which, being broken and reduced to powder, were used by surgeons when about to apply the knife or the cautery in dulling the sense of pain, which it effected completely without danger.^[2493]

The morochthos,^[2494] likewise used in medicine, was a species of Egyptian clay applied to the bleaching of linen. From Æthiopia came the stone called thyites,^[2495] which, though green like the jasper, being dipped in water, imparted to it the colour of milk, and rendered it a cure for ophthalmia. The nitre^[2496] of Egypt was superior to that of Lydia.^[2497] Aloes, likewise,^[2498] and the fine sand for the gymnasia were supplied by this country.^[2499] The best burnt copper was exported from Egypt, where it was prepared as follows in the neighbourhood of Memphis.^[2500] Taking a number of copper nails from ships decayed and fallen to pieces, they piled them in unbaked jars, alternating with layers of earth and sulphur of equal weight, which, having been well luted, were then placed in red-hot furnaces, where they were kept until the jars were thoroughly baked. In lieu of salt and sulphur alum was sometimes substituted.

Others, without adding any of these substances, burnt the nails for several days; while a fourth method was, previously to smear them with a mixture of alum, vinegar, and sulphur, and afterwards to burn them in unbaked jars. Copper thus calcined assumed a red colour, and, when pounded in Theban mortars and repeatedly washed with rain water, resembled cinnabar or minium.^[2501] It was usually kept by physicians in boxes of bronze. The marbles of Egypt, used by ancient artists, were generally green and red porphyry.^[2502] All kinds of glass vessels, it is well known, were exported from Alexandria.^[2503]

In the commerce of ancient Syria, one of the principal articles was dates,^[2504] whether dried in the ordinary manner or pressed together and fashioned into square masses. Figs,^[2505] likewise, with prunes,^[2506] and walnuts,^[2507] and pomegranates,^[2508] and apples, and nuts,^[2509] and almonds,^[2510] came from thence. With respect to the exports of Phœnicia we can say but little in this place, as it collected together the wealth of the whole ancient world, which it again distributed according to the tastes and wants of various countries. Thus, we find, that from Egypt the merchandise borne to Tyre consisted of fine linen, with broidered work, which was used in sails on her galleys; blue and purple from the Ægæan; silver, iron, tin, and lead,^[2511] from Cilicia; slaves and brazen vessels from Javan, Tubal, and Meschech; horses and mules from Kùrdistân; ivory and ebony from the shores of the Persian gulf; emeralds, purple and broidered work, fine linen, coral, and agates, from Syria; wheat of Minnith and Pannag, honey, oil, and balms, from Judea; and white wool and the wine of Helbon from Damascus. Among the other exports of Tyre were bright iron, cassia, and calamus; Arabia furnished her with lambs, rams, and goats, spices, precious stones, and gold, blue cloths and broidered work, and chests of rich apparel, bound with cords and made of cedar.^[2512]

From this country was first obtained the Marocco leather which is no other than goat’s-skin tanned with the bark of the pomegranate-tree.^[2513] The frankincense^[2514] laid up in vast quantities in the sea-ports of Syria to be conveyed to every country on the shores of the Mediterranean, not having been the growth of the country, will be described elsewhere; but various other odoriferous substances, whether gums, oils, or unguents, were the produce of their land.^[2515]

Among these was the balm of Gilead,^[2516] which exuded from a tree originally introduced from Arabia Felix. The gardens, two in number,^[2517] in which the balsam trees were cultivated lay in the valley of Jericho, flanked on both sides by continuous ridges of lofty mountains,^[2518] and were of small dimensions, the larger not exceeding twenty acres. The tree itself, at present found to flourish in several regions of the East, resembled in size that of the pomegranate, spreading into numerous branches and covered with an evergreen foliage, in form like the leaves of rue, though in colour lighter. Its fruit resembled the terebinth-berries both in hue and size. The gum, for which alone it is valued, is produced in extremely small quantities, but exhales the most delicious odour.

The season for gathering it in old times was during the extremest heat of the dog-days, when an incision being made with certain iron claws towards the upper part of the trunk, the balsam trickled forth slowly so as scarcely to fill a single shell during the whole day, as was more particularly observed during the visit of Alexander to this valley. The produce of the large garden during the whole year did not exceed six choes, that of the smaller one a chous. The balsam, when it issued from the tree, was liquid, somewhat resembling milk in colour, and about the consistence of oil. It was sometimes collected on flocks of wool and squeezed into small horns, from whence it was transferred to fictile vases. This substance was so fragrant that the smallest particle perfumed the atmosphere to a considerable distance. It is now seldom found unadulterated in Europe. Pompey carried the balsam-tree in his triumph at Rome, and Vespasian afterwards brought another specimen into Italy.^[2519]

The Syrian costus bore the third rank in the estimation of the ancients, and the superior kinds were adulterated with the roots of a species of inula, growing in the district of Comagena.^[2520] Another Syrian export was galbanum^[2521] which appears to have been produced only in this country; another, the speckled wake-robin,^[2522] the roots of which were eaten like parsnips, while the leaves were salted and used to season dishes. This appears to have been one of the plants which formed the garland of Ophelia, to which the queen alludes in the following words: