The quotidian does not make its attack with a rigor on the first day, but in progress of time, a chill rather than rigor takes place, which is, with difficulty, succeeded by heat, and it has a protracted increase. Yet, it does not make those affected hot, nor their respiration frequent and thick, nor does it make them pant or drink cold water. But they have vomitings of phlegm, and whatever is voided by the belly is cold, crude, and watery, in these fevers. And they have no sweats during the first days, neither have they an interval of freedom from fever. Their colour is white and pale; their urine thin and white, or thick, turbid, and red.
Commentary. We have stated, in the 18th Section, that the ancients were of opinion that quotidians derive their origin from phlegm, that is to say, serum.
Our author’s description is abridged from Galen (Therap. ad Glauc. i.) The other authorities treat of it in much the same terms. Even Alexander, who aims at originality, agrees with Galen and Hippocrates, in referring the origin of quotidians to phlegm. Palladius, in his valuable little treatise on Fever, is at great pains to explain the manner in which putrid extravasated phlegm gives rise to quotidian. He represents the heat as being smothered and concealed like that of moist fuel. Celsus describes all the varieties of the disease very minutely. Constantinus Africanus gives an accurate description of this intermittent. He says that the paroxysm lasts for twenty-four (eighteen?) hours, and is followed by an interval of six hours. First, old persons, and then boys, are said to be peculiarly subject to the disease, which is apt to make its attack in cold countries and at cold seasons of the year. It is attended with a great degree of cold, especially of the extremities; the face is swelled, the colour pale, and no thirst is present.
As the Arabians give the same account of the origin and symptoms of quotidians, we need not enter upon a detail of their descriptions. All agree that they are connected with phlegm as an exciting cause, and that the fever is less ardent and well-marked than in the case of tertians.
In curing the quotidian, we use oxymel during the first days, and those things which properly promote the discharge of urine. And, upon the whole, the diet ought to be incisive; but, at its acme, we must look to the stomach, particularly its orifice. We must also prescribe an emetic from radishes taken with food, and phlegmagogue cathartics in abundance, until it subside.
Commentary. This Section is taken from Oribasius (Synops. vi, 14.)
Celsus enjoins abstinence for three days; after which food is to be taken every alternate day. After the fever has subsided, he recommends the bath and wine.
Galen’s treatment is exactly the same as our author’s. Alexander, as usual, makes nice distinctions as to the circumstances under which each of the remedies ought to be applied. In general, he approves of incisive and attenuant medicines, but blames Galen for recommending the latter too indiscriminately. He forbids cataplasms and embrocations at the commencement, lest they should occasion a determination of the humours to the affected part.
Synesius appears to have proceeded upon much the same principles as our author, but he makes mention of some additional medicines, such as camphor, wormwood, and the like.
Nonnus recommends, at first, things of an incisive and attenuant nature, and then emetics, after which the phlegm is to be purged by means of colocynth and agaric, and cataplasms and fomentations are to be applied to the pit of the stomach.
Avicenna lays down the rules of treatment with so great minuteness, that we cannot venture upon an abridgment of them. His principles, however, seem to be the same as those of Galen. Averrhoes recommends, for the first seven days, medicines of an incisive, attenuant, and deobstruent nature. He then gives cathartics which evacuate phlegm, such as turbith, agaric, and hiera picra, but forbids the use of colocynth. He approves very much of friction, the mode of applying which is minutely described by him. Rhases recommends much the same treatment. He, in particular, recommends turbith and agaric along with wormwood and mastich. Haly’s remedies are mostly diluents and attenuants. Alsaharavius recommends the same remedies as Rhases.
The vitreous phlegm being the coldest of all, if it accumulate in the body, and remain free from putrefaction, it occasions the rigor without heat, which is not attended with fever. In those fevers which are kindled by the humours, it is putrefaction for the most part which kindles febrile heat. If it become putrid, and that through its whole substance, which is rarely the case, owing to its great coldness, it occasions quotidian fever. But when it is half putrid, and not equally through its whole substance, but some parts of it being putrid, and others not, it gives rise to the fever called hepialus, in which those affected have rigors and fever at the same time; for the parts of the humour which are not putrid being scattered through the veins all over the body, occasion rigor; but the putrid parts kindle fever. The word hepialus is either derived from ἡπίας ἁλος, i. e. the sea, which is mild in appearance, although formidable in reality; or from ἡπίως ἁλεάζειν, i. e. warming gently. And, as this fever is of the quotidian kind, being formed by phlegm, it is to be treated in the same manner; only that it requires remedies as much hotter and more incisive than the quotidian, as its phlegm is colder than that of the other. The rigor without heat stands in need of heating things still more than the hepialus. Wherefore, the composition of three peppers, that from calamint, and still more that from Cyrenaic juice are particularly suitable to this complaint, as also the remedies prepared from castor and the like. You will find a fuller account of these matters in the 46th section, “on immoderate rigor and cold.” The fevers called lipyriæ, and the typhoid or smoky, and whatever others are mentioned besides those described, being all of the same kind as the above mentioned, will require the same methods of cure as those which have been mentioned, or will soon be described.
Commentary. Hippocrates applies the term hepialus to a fever occasioned by amenorrhœa. He briefly notices the lipyria in several parts of his works, (as Coac, 32, 27.) Galen enters minutely into the consideration of the nature and causes of the hepialus, which appears to be a variety of the quotidian intermittent. He says the fever derives its origin from the putrefaction of a thick phlegm resembling melted glass. Its distinguishing characteristic is, that the patient experiences a sensation of heat and rigor at the same time.
Aëtius, and the other subsequent authorities, treat of the fever in the same terms. They recommend, principally, sudorifics and calefacients.
Rhases, Avicenna, Serapion, and Haly treat of the epiala, and the “frigus quod non calefit,” as varieties of the quotidian. Alsaharavius gives a very distinct account of the epiala. He says it arises from a gross vitreous phlegm, and is attended with internal heat, and cold of the extremities. The pulse is small and weak, the urine white and unconcocted, and the perspiration suppressed, owing to the constriction of the pores and thickness of the humours. He approves of giving emetics, attenuants, and calefacients. The lipyriæ are treated of by Serapion, Avicenna, Rhases, and Alsaharavius. They are said to be the counterpart of the epialæ, being distinguished by internal cold and external heat. Rhases describes the hepialus as consisting of internal heat and external cold. He says it arises from vitreous phlegm. The lipyria, he states, is one of the worst varieties of ardent fevers.
The rigor without heat, or “frigus quod non calefit,” is a febrile affection still met with in warm climates.
The term typhus, now generally applied to the common fever of this country, is used by Hippocrates, in his work on ‘Internal Affections,’ where he describes five varieties of the disease. They are cases of ardent fever, attended with stupor and insensibility. The term typhodes occurs in Galen’s ‘Commentaries on Hippocrates;’ in his work, ‘De Diff. Feb.’ (i, 9); and ‘De Prognost. Puls.’ (ii, 9.) Leo defines a typhous fever to be one in which the heat is weak and concealed. (14.) It would appear that the fevers to which the ancients applied the term typhoid were either intermittents or remittents. Isidorus thus defines typhous fevers: “Typhi sunt frigidæ febres, quæ abusivè typhi appellantur ab herbâ quæ nascitur in aquis quæ Latinè forma atque status dicitur: est enim accessionum revolutio per statuta temporum intervalla.” (Orig. iv, 7.) The word τύφος occurs in Marcus Antoninus (ii, 17), where Gataker remarks, “Est enim τύφος κυρίως idem quod κάπνος, fumus.” Salmasius gives the derivation of the term as follows: “τύφος proprie est fomes, τύφεσθαι enim ἠσυχῆ κάιεσθαι Græci exponunt.” (In Tertulliani Librum de Pallio Annot. 318.)
Prosper Alpinus thus explains the nature of typhoid fevers: “Has febres exterius mites seu obscuras intus turbantes Græci typhodes appellant, quippe quæ naturam multitudine humorum gravatam, ac fere suffocatam, incendium foras transmittere nequeuntem, significent. Hasque vulgus medicorum appellat, foris mites, intus conturbantes; suntque eæ omnes, admodum perniciosæ.” (De Præsag. Vita et Morte Ægrot. i, 10.)
The continual fevers are allied to each of the intermittents; thus, to the true tertian is allied the causus or ardent fever; to the quotidian, that fever which has a paroxysm every day, but does not terminate in a complete freedom from fever; and, in like manner, to the quartan, that which has an exacerbation every fourth day. For the true causus has all the other characteristics of the tertian, and differs from it only in not commencing with a rigor, nor ending in a complete remission of the fever. The continual fever which has an exacerbation every day, possesses all the other characteristics of a quotidian, except that it does not terminate in a perfect apyrexy. In like manner, the continual fever which has an exacerbation every fourth day, but does not terminate in a complete apyrexy, is allied to the quartan. A continual fever, therefore, is one which does not terminate in any interval from fever until it is altogether resolved. But when it evinces no remission, it is, indeed, of the same class as the ardent fevers, but differs from them in acuteness.
Commentary. Hippocrates has stated the alliance between the intermittent and continual fevers. (Epidem., Op. Galeni, ed. Basil, v, p. 362.) In his report of the epidemical diseases of a certain season, he mentions that the continual fevers (συνεχεῖς) were distinguished by an exacerbation every alternate day, after the manner of tertians, and that they were attended with ardent symptoms. He also remarks their tendency to terminate in dysenteries, lienteries, and tenesmus.
Galen marks a distinction between the continual fever (συνεχῆς) and the synochus, which it is necessary that the reader should particularly attend to. He remarks that there are three varieties of intermittents: the quotidian, which arises from putrid phlegm; the tertian, from yellow bile; and the quartan, from black bile. Of continual fevers, arising from yellow bile, there are two species; the one being called synochi, and consisting of one paroxysm from beginning to end; and the other, to which the generic appellation continual (συνεχεῖς) is particularly applied, and which consists of a number of particular paroxyms. Of the continual fevers, some assume the tertian type, having a remission of the fever every alternate day; some the quotidian, and have a remission every day; and others, of rare occurrence, resemble the quartans, in having remissions after an interval of three days. (De Diff. Feb. ii, 2.) In another place he says of synochous fevers that they consist of two varieties, the one arising from an ebullition of the blood, and being produced by the conversion of ephemerals; and the other arising from putrefaction of the blood in persons who are gross and plethoric. (Meth. Med. ix.)
Aëtius treats of continual fevers (συνεχεῖς) in nearly the same terms as our author, and distinguishes them from the synochi.
Alexander states that the continual fevers (συνεχεῖς) differ from the intermittents, solely from the humours which occasion the former being of a thicker nature.
Our author’s account is nearly copied word for word from Oribasius.
Actuarius remarks that the synochus proceeds from an ebullition of the blood, and the continual fever (συνεχὴς) from putrefaction of the different humours.
Nonnus states very distinctly the difference between the synochus and continual fever. In the latter, he says, there is an incomplete remission of the febrile symptoms, but in the former there is no remission at all.
Synesius and Constantinus Africanus adopt the distinction between the synochus and continual fever, as stated by Galen.
Leo says, a continual fever has no intermission, but merely a remission and abatement of the fever in the decline of the paroxyms.
Celsus, although he does not describe the febres continuæ particularly, seems to allude to them in the following account of the quotidians: “Rursus aliæ sic desinunt, ut ex toto sequatur integritas; aliæ sic, ut aliquantum quidem minuatur ex febre, nihilominus tamen quædam reliquiæ remaneant, donec altera accessio accedat; ac sæpe aliæ vix quidquam aut nihil remittant, sed ita ut continuent.”
In the works of Rhases, the distinction between the continual and synochous fevers is clearly pointed out. He states that the synochus, or continens, is a fever which consists of one paroxysm from beginning to end; whereas the continual, called συνεχὴς by the Greeks, and f. continua by the Romans, is allied to the intermittents.
In the barbarous translation of Alsaharavius, there is some difficulty in recognizing this distinction. He first describes a fever, which he denominates synocha, which arises, he says, from inflammation of the blood, and is marked by redness of the face, headach, and difficulty of breathing. Second, nearly allied to it is the synochus or februs continua (it ought to be f. continens), which arises from putrefaction of the blood. Third, the febris quotidiana, the febris tertiana continua, and the febris quartana continua, which are distinguished from their corresponding intermittents by being attended with a partial remission and not a complete intermission of the febrile symptoms.
Avicenna describes the tertian intermittent by the name of febris tertiana periodica, and the continual tertian by that of tertiana continua; the quotidian intermittent by the name of febris phlegmatica periodica, and the continual quotidian by that of febris phlegmatica inseparabilis, or latica; the quartan intermittent by the name of quartana periodica, and the continual quartan by that of quartana continua. The synochus he calls by the name of febris sanguinis; and, in treating of it, remarks that Galen is guilty of inconsistency in stating the proximate cause of it; for that in one place he says it arises from the blood, and in another from bile. Averrhoes states the same objections to Galen’s account of the origin of synochous fevers.
Avenzoar marks the distinction between the intermittent and the continual quotidians, tertians, and quartans.
We have been more than usually minute in explaining the opinions of the ancients with regard to the Continual fevers, because much confusion has arisen in modern nosological treatises and works on medicine, from the distinction between them and the synochi not being properly understood. After what has been said, the medical reader will readily perceive that the Continual fevers (συνεχεῖς) of the Greeks are the same as the Remittent fevers described by Pringle, Monro, and other English authors of that age who have treated of fevers.
Synochous fevers are produced sometimes by effervescence of the blood alone, and sometimes by putrefaction of the same, arising from obstruction, and have, therefore, but one paroxysm from beginning to end. The symptoms are, pulse very great, strong, quick, dense, equable; but they are not pungent; and the urine is little different from the natural. The cure of them consists in bloodletting ad deliquium. And those who are affected with these fevers, and are not bled, run the most imminent danger. But if anything should prevent us from having recourse to phlebotomy, we must use such other remedies as are calculated to remove obstructions, those which evacuate, and such as will allay the effervescence of the blood. But when in these cases you remark symptoms of concoction of the humours, and there is neither inflammation, œdematous swelling, nor scirrhus in any important part, nor any part cold, so as that the evil may be determined to it, you may boldly give cold water, more especially if the patient has been accustomed to cold drink.
Commentary. After what we have said in the preceding section, and in the section on Ephemerals, it will be unnecessary to enter into any detailed account of the ancient opinions with regard to the nature of synochus. It is to be distinctly recollected, however, that all the authorities from Hippocrates to Actuarius held, with Galen, that the synochi are produced either by an ebullition of the blood, as in the case of neglected ephemerals, or from putrefaction of this fluid. (See Meth. Med. ix.)
In other parts of his works Galen seems, indeed, to hold that these fevers are connected with corruptions of the bile, and we shall not attempt to defend him from the charges of inconsistence and contradiction with which he is assailed by Avicenna and Averrhoes. His treatment is well deserving of our attention. He inculcates with becoming earnestness that the great remedies for synochous fevers are bleeding and cold drink. He approves of bleeding ad deliquium animi, and relates an interesting case of its good effects. (Meth. Med. ix.) When the pulse is large and firm, he insists that no considerations of age, strength, or any other circumstance, ought to deter the physician from abstracting blood freely. He directs the apartments of the sick to be kept cool and well ventilated, and to have the floors sprinkled and rendered fragrant by means of suitable flowers. The diet is to be of a light and diluent nature, especially at the acme of the fever. (Therap. ad Glauc. i.) He forbids the bath when inflammation is present. (Hyg.)
Aëtius conducts the treatment upon the same principles as Galen, and the directions which he gives for the application of the different remedies are most important. He states most decidedly, that unless venesection is had recourse to, the patient will be in the utmost danger, and can only be saved by the strength of his constitution, or some critical evacuation. When the stomach is loaded, however, he forbids depletion, because, by emptying the veins, the distribution of the crudities in the primæ viæ will be accelerated. When the menstrual or hemorrhodial discharge is expected, he directs us to bleed less profusely than otherwise. Persons of a hard, sanguine, and compact habit of body are said to bear bleeding best. In practising venesection, he directs the physician to pay more attention to the strength of the patient than to the period of the fever. He is particularly earnest in recommending the use of cold drink: he directs it to be given at the acme of the disease, but not at the commencement. He forbids us to administer it freely when there is obstruction or inflammation of an internal viscus; and states many serious evils which may arise from the unseasonable administration of cold water, although it be an excellent remedy when given at the proper time. With regard to diet, he directs nothing but ptisan to be given for the first three days. On the fourth he recommends the bath. Through the whole course of the fever the food is to be light, unless the powers of the patient be very feeble.
As the other Greek authorities differ in no material respect from the principles of treatment laid down by Galen and Aëtius, we need not enter upon any minute exposition of their views of practice. As a specimen, however, of the practice of the later authors, we shall briefly mention that of Synesius and Constantinus Africanus. They approve of bleeding, unless the stomach be loaded with crudities; in which case they forbid the operation until these are concocted or discharged. They recommend diluents; and, if the belly is constipated, clysters, with decoctions, containing tamarinds, damascenes, manna, and the like. To remove the remains of the febrile excitement in the decline of the fever, they direct medicines of a refrigerant nature to be given, such as camphor, the seeds of melons, cucumbers, gourds, and the like.
Palladius gives the following directions for the treatment of fevers in general. In all these diseases the skilful physician ought to know and understand accurately the constitution and temperament of the sick; and the peculiar form of the fever, and the formation, movement, onset, increase, and acme of every disease, and the analogies of the paroxysms, and the returns of the periods. And the first and general object in all these diseases is to clear the body of impurities, and render it perspirable; and the second in order is to contend with the prevailing cause; for the work of the physician in all cases is to rectify whatever is amiss about the body. (De Febribus, 29.)
Celsus recommends venesection in all fevers at the commencement, provided the patient is not very young, weak, or has crudities in his stomach; but after the fourth day he does not approve of it. He also makes some ingenious remarks on the contrary methods of giving water and wine in cases of fever. He recommends the latter when there is cold, torpor, and restlessness. He likewise mentions the affusion of cold water and oil, with the intention of changing the morbid state of action.
In the Epistle of Vindicianus, physician to the Emperor Valentinian, there is an interesting history of a fever, arising from indigestion and obstruction of the bowels, brought on by excess in eating and drinking. In this case Vindicianus, in opposition to the advice of the other professional attendants, would not administer a clyster, and gave his patient nothing but salt and water, which procured first copious perspirations, and afterwards free evacuations of the bowels. He then directed him to use the bath, and completed the cure by giving wormwood to remove obstructions. This is a well-marked case of intestinal fever. (Fabricii Bibl. Græc. t. xiii.)
We may state the general characters of the urine as given in an interesting little treatise, ‘On the Urine,’ lately published by Ideler. In synochous fevers, as being connected with fulness of blood, the urine is red, thick, and indicating by its colour and consistence the want of concoction. (De Urinis Commentatio.)
Haly Abbas, during the first three days, strongly recommends venesection, which, he says, will either have the effect of cutting short the fever at once, or of rendering it milder. His other remedies are altogether refrigerant, consisting of acidulated drinks, and gentle purgatives, such as prunes, tamarinds, and the like. Alsaharavius, in like manner, recommends depletion, and the refrigerant plan of treatment.
Serapion strongly recommends bleeding, ad deliquium animi, which, he says, will probably have the effect of procuring discharges from the bowels, and of promoting perspiration. He admits of venesection even after the sixth or seventh day, when other circumstances indicate it. He further prescribes refrigerant remedies, such as tamarinds, cassia-fistula, and the like.
Averrhoes, although he approves of venesection, condemns Galen’s direction to carry it the length of bringing on deliquium animi. He also cautions against carrying the administration of cold drink too far.
Avenzoar strongly recommends bleeding ad deliquium. Avicenna likewise approves of this practice. When the strength does not permit to carry depletion so far, he directs us to open the temporal veins, or to abstract blood by cupping. In such cases he also recommends purgatives and refrigerant medicines. Towards the conclusion of the fever he directs the trochisks of camphor to be given.
Rhases gives an excellent account of synochus. His remedies are bleeding, gentle purgatives, acidulated drinks, restricted diet, and complete abstinence from wine. He particularly recommends aloes as a purgative. (See, in particular, Contin. xxx, v, 2.) He approves of the bath, but prefers delaying the use of it until the decline of the fever. He is very decided in recommending bleeding, unless the patient be of a weak constitution, or his system loaded with crudities. After the fever is concocted, he approves of giving cold water freely for drink.
The following symptoms accompany ardent fevers: tongue dry, rough, and black, griping of the stomach, excrements pale, strong thirst, watchfulness, and sometimes delirium.
Commentary. Our author’s description of the causus, or ardent fever, is taken from Hippocrates (de Rat. Vic. Acut.), where the commentary of Galen is worth consulting. According to Hippocrates, the causus is generally produced in the summer season, owing to the veins becoming dry and attracting bilious humours. In other parts of his works he gives an account of several varieties of the disease, differing considerably in character from that described in the above-mentioned work. For example, one variety mentioned in his ‘Epidemics’ was distinguished by the absence of thirst and delirium, and by the paroxyms occurring on the even days. (See Galen’s Commentary, Opera, ed. Basil. t. v, 424; also, de Morbis, i, 27; and Coacæ, 130.) He further describes, under the head of causus, various cases of febrile complaints after childbirth and abortion, which would now be called puerperal fevers. (Epidem. iii.)
Aretæus delivers a most striking description of ardent fevers, which we regret that our limits prevent us from giving at full length. The following are some of the most important symptoms: the heat acrid and subtile, especially in the internal parts, desire of cold air and of cold things, the extremities cold, the pulse dense and small, the eyes clear, bright, and reddish; and, if the fever go on increasing, delirium, oblivion of every thing, lividity of the nails, frequent respiration, profuse perspiration about the forehead and neck, coldness of the body, and at last a complete collapse marked by a return of the powers of reason and certain indications of a prophetic spirit. This is but a meagre outline of his matchless delineation of the phenomena of causus.
As all the Greek, Latin, and Arabian writers treat of causus in nearly the same terms as Hippocrates, we shall be very brief in noticing their descriptions. According to Alexander, there are two varieties of causus, the true and the spurious, the former being marked by intense thirst, bilious stools, tongue rough and black; and the latter by the thirst being moderate, the tongue not black, and the stools consisting not of bilious matters, but rather of corrupted food. The former kind is said to be occasioned by a bilious, and the latter by a pituitous humour. Aëtius describes the disease in the same terms as our author. He says that it is produced by putrefaction of yellow bile. Palladius says that ardent fevers are occasioned by an erysipelatous inflammation of the lungs, or by the putrefaction of bilious humours which have become immoderately heated. The Arabians describe it exactly as the Greeks. According to Avicenna, there are two varieties of the disease, the bilious and the pituitous. The inseparable symptoms of the disease are, he says, concealed heat, roughness, and, at last, blackness of the tongue. There is no perspiration until after the crisis. For the most part the heat is not strong in the external parts, but is particularly so in the internal. Rhases states that the ardent fever called καῦσος by the Greeks belongs to the class of tertians, only that in the former the heat is more intense, and the paroxysms do not terminate in a complete intermission of the febrile symptoms. The symptoms, he adds, bear a considerable resemblance to those of the tertian intermittent, but are more strongly marked. According to Alsaharavius, the causus, or ardent fever, is occasioned by heated bile collected in the veins adjoining to the heart, stomach, or liver, and its symptoms resemble those of tertians, but are more intense.
From the above exposition of the opinions of the ancients regarding the causus, or ardent fever, the medical reader will readily recognize its identity with the bilious remittent fever of Sir John Pringle and other English authors. If there were any doubt on this head, it would be set aside by the description of the symptoms of ardent fever which is given by the late Dr. Robert Jackson, as they were manifested in his own person during a severe attack of it. (On Fever, 403.)
Some late writers have confounded the causus of the ancients with synocha, or inflammatory fever. But, as we have said, and as was correctly stated by Baccius, the causus was decidedly of the continual or remittent type, and nearly allied to the tertian intermittent. (De Thermis.) Hoffman remarks that it seldom appears in the more temperate parts of Europe, but is very common in Asia, Greece, and Italy; and hence the frequent mention of it in the works of Hippocrates, Galen, and Aretæus. (Oper. t. ii, § 2, c. 2.)
Homer says that the dog-star brings many fevers upon unhappy mortals (Iliad, xxi, 31); and his commentator Eustathius remarks that the poet correctly refers the origin of ardent fevers to the heat of the dog-days.
Either of the following things must take place, that this fever may terminate completely; the bilious humours must either be evacuated or extinguished. They are evacuated then by sweating, vomiting, or purging downwards; but they are extinguished by cold drink, with which we have entirely cured ardent fevers. For diet, those in causus should not take water alone, nor mead alone, but boiled mead much diluted with water; for the food of such persons ought to consist entirely of drinks. The bath will suit with those only affected with causus who are free from all inflammatory and erysipelatous swelling. And if they exhibit signs of concoction, it will suit still better with them; but not so if the fever be occasioned by a saltish humour. These should be supported with the juice of ptisan.
Commentary. Our author’s directions respecting the treatment are mostly taken from Hippocrates (de Rat. Vict. Acut.) Hippocrates allows venesection only when the attack is violent. He approves of the application of cold water to the surface. Archigenes, as Aëtius informs us, sponged the head and chest with cold water during the acme of ardent fevers. (iii. 159.) His own treatment, which is borrowed from Philumenus and Galen, consisted of cooling remedies internally and externally, such as drinking cold water and other things of a refrigerant nature, using cold applications, and the cold bath, (v, 28.) Alexander, Oribasius, Synesius, and Constantinus Africanus treat the causus upon the same plan as our author. They say nothing of bleeding. Celsus likewise omits to make mention of venesection, but recommends refrigerants, and especially cold water to be given, even to satiety. He forbids it, however, when there is any affection of the internal viscera, and when there is a cough. He informs us that Asclepiades, of Bithynia, strongly recommended gestation for the cure of this fever.
Averrhoes abstracts blood when there are symptoms of plethora, gives gentle purgatives, such as tamarinds, and allows the patient cool drink and cool air. Haly Abbas treats the causus entirely upon the refrigerant plan, with cold drink, cooling fruits, fresh air, gentle laxatives, such as prunes, and by cold applications to the skin. Alsaharavius conducts the treatment upon much the same principles. When the patient is troubled with protracted watchfulness, he directs us to rub the temples with the juice of poppies, lettuces, and coriander. Avicenna also speaks favorably of these soporifics, but does not in general approve of bleeding. The treatment recommended by Rhases is altogether refrigerant. He directs us to clear away the asperities of the tongue, and then to give cooling and acid drinks. When there is no inflammation of any internal viscus, he permits water cooled with snow. He says nothing of venesection. However, some of his authorities, as quoted in his ‘Continens,’ recommend bleeding. They seem in general to have approved of keeping the patient in a cool room perfumed with aromatic and fragrant herbs. One of them approves of applying over the stomach a robe moistened with a fluid prepared from camphor, rose oil, &c.
We omitted to mention that Hippocrates states that children at the breast are subject to attacks of causus, by which of course he meant the infantile remittent fever, first well described some years ago by Dr. Butter.
Fevers accompanied with an erysipelatous affection about the viscera, may be known by the vehement effervescence and violent pain in the part, also, by the thirst and inordinate burning; in a word, by the symptoms of very acrid bile putrefied along with a deficient blood. They are to be treated in this manner: the patient must abstain altogether from the bath, and at the acme of the complaint, use very cold water in the most decided manner. Yet it must not be used at the commencement, but cold things are to be applied externally; and if this is not sufficient, they must be taken internally. Lettuces and such like things are particularly befitting. The juice of the lettuce is likewise a seasonable application externally, also, that of the house-leek (semper-vivum), and such like cooling things. We may use the following application, which is an excellent one: Squeezing out the juice of some cooling thing, we put it into a mortar with purslain, then pound and strain it; at the time of using, we mix a little polenta with it, and place it in cold water to cool it. A piece of cloth folded double is to be put into it, and afterwards applied to the hypochondrium, and not suffered to remain, but another cold one must be substituted. We sometimes mix the oil of unripe olives.
Commentary. This section is mostly taken from Oribasius, (Synops. vi, 20.) On erysipelas of the lungs consult Hippocrates, (De Morbis, i, 13, and ii, 53.) Hippocrates says in one of his aphorisms (vi, 25), that it is dangerous when an external erysipelas is determined internally, but favorable when an internal erysipelas is determined externally. He describes an epidemical erysipelas which was attended with extensive gangrene of the limbs, but did not often prove fatal. (Epid. i.)
The following are the symptoms of fever connected with erysipelatous inflammation, as detailed by Alexander: The patient experiences thirst more strikingly than in any other case, throws the clothes off his body, has exacerbations every third day, with bilious and ichorous discharges from the bowels; those in whom the erysipelatous inflammation is seated in the lungs have not so intense thirst, but breathe thick and large, their cheeks are red, tongue rough, they are delirious, and long rather for cool air, and are more benefited by it than by cool drink, which ought rather to be given to those who have erysipelatous inflammation in any other part, whereas those in whom the lungs are affected ought to be supplied with cool air. In ordinary cases he approves of giving cold water to extinguish the fever, but says that he has seen patients brought to imminent danger by the unseasonable application of cold cataplasms and clysters.
Aëtius states that fevers are kindled by the parts about the bowels, liver, and lungs, being attacked with erysipelas. Like our author, he approves of cold drink, cool air, and cold applications to the part affected. (v, 88.)
The acute affection of the vena cava, which is minutely described by Aretæus, ought probably to be ranked with the diseases which we are now treating of. He himself is in doubt whether to consider it as a species of causus. Like the latter, he says, it has a tendency to pass into syncope. (De Sign. Morb. Acut. iii, 8.) He recommends for it venesection and the refrigerant plan of treatment. (Cur. Morb. Acut. ii, 7.) We have stated in the xxixth section that Palladius refers one variety of ardent fever to erysipelas of the lungs.
A similar account of these affections is given by Avicenna, (iv, i, 4, c. 13, 14, and 15); and by Rhases (ad Mansor. x, 15, alibique.)
We can draw no information from modern works to illustrate the opinions of the ancients respecting the febrile affections treated of in this section. It does not seem to be suspected now that erysipelas ever attacks the lungs or bowels; and yet, as this disease when it occurs externally is known to be seated principally in the epidermis, and as the epithelium, or membrane which lines the internal cavities, is admitted to be a prolongation of it, (see Kaau Boerhaave, Perspiratio Dicta Hippocrati,) it would seem probable a priori, that the diseases of both portions of it should be alike. That fevers are often complicated with ardent affections of the lungs and bowels, and bilious symptoms, we all admit; and it was, no doubt, to such febrile affections that the ancients gave the name of fevers from erysipelas—erysipelas, as we shall see afterwards, being referred by them to the state of the bile. One cannot but admire the sagacity of Hippocrates in tracing the connexion and resemblance between the diseases of the epidermis and those of the epithelium. (See Littré’s Hippocrat. t. iv, 419.)
The hectic fever is not only seated in the fluids and spirits, but also in the solid parts. It is unaccompanied with pain, and those affected with this fever imagine that they have no fever at all, for they are sensible of no heat, all the parts being heated equally. There are two kinds of hectic fevers, the one for the most part supervening upon ardent fevers which have been protracted so long as to consume in time all the juices in the body of the heart; the other may come on while it remains plentiful. The former constitute not only hectic but marasmus. Those that come on while the juices of the heart remain, seize upon the body of the heart, and hence the febrile flame is kindled, like the flame of a lamp from its wick. This is one of the modes of formation. The other mode is, when they make their attack originally, commencing like ephemeral fevers, from grief, anger, or much fatigue attended with heat. These may be cured without difficulty; but those of them which have terminated in marasmus, it is impossible to cure. A hectic fever which is running into marasmus may be easily recognized. You may see the patients’ eyes immeasurably hollow, dry rheums determined to them, and they have a certain squalid appearance. The vital bloom of their colour is gone; their forehead is parched and stretched; they constantly wink as if asleep, and yet the affection is not sleep, but an inability to keep awake; their temples are collapsed; and what remains, but the bones and skin alone? If you lay bare, and examine the parts about the abdomen, you will fancy that none of the entrails and intestines remain, and that the hypochondrium is forcibly drawn upwards. The skin is parched in the last extreme, the pulse slender, dense, and hard. The heat on the first application of the hand seems faint, but soon afterwards feels acrid and pungent. While, therefore, any of the natural moisture remains, the fever is only hectic; but when the humidity runs the risk of being altogether consumed, a true marasmus is formed.
Commentary. Our author has copied from Oribasius (Synops. vi, 21), who in his turn is indebted to Galen (de Diff. Feb. i, 11.) A similar account is given in somewhat fuller terms by Aëtius (v, 92.) See also Alexander (xii, 4.) We shall merely give his explanation of the characters of the pulse. It is hard and small, because the vessels have become dry and contracted; it is dense (frequent?) because the necessities of the system require it to be so, (namely, in order to make up for the reduced expansion of the artery); it is feeble, owing to the weakness of the vital powers; and slender, because the vessel does not admit of being stretched in breadth. Nonnus and Actuarius derive their views from Galen. According to the latter, hectic fever is a very dangerous disease when it arises from the conversion of any other fever, but when connected with inflammation or scirrhus of any vital organ it is almost incurable. Palladius says that the hectic is an unceasing fever, wasting and consuming the natural humidity of all the members, and supervening for the most part upon acute and ardent fevers, but sometimes arising from sympathy with some vital organ. He states it as a characteristic of the hectic fever, that food increases the febrile heat, in like manner as water poured upon unslacked lime enkindles heat. This comparison is borrowed from Galen, and is repeated also by Alexander and Nonnus. Palladius, like our author, represents marasmus as the termination of the hectic fever. It is distinguished, he says, by prostration of the natural faculties, aridity, and wasting of the body, which becomes dried and parched like a tree deprived of its juices by exposure to excessive heat.
According to Haly Abbas, hectic fevers commonly arise either from the conversion of semi-tertians, or from abscesses of the lungs, whence heat is sent to the heart, and from it is diffused over the system. (Theor. viii, 7.) Alsaharavius states that hectic fevers arise from protracted ephemeral or putrid fevers, or from sympathy of the system with ulceration of the lungs, bladder, or liver, or from any chronic and prolonged disease. (Pract. xxxii.) Averrhoes represents the hectic as supervening upon ephemeral and putrid fevers. He ridicules the comparison of the effects of food on the febrile heat to those of water poured upon lime. (Collig. iv, 33.) Avenzoar gives the same account of hectic as our author. (iii. 3, c. 13.) Serapion’s account, although borrowed from the Greeks, is distinct and curious (vi, 11.) See also Rhases (ad Mansor. x, 3, alibique.) He and Haly Abbas repeat the graphic delineation of a person in the last stage of hectic fever, borrowed by our author from Galen, who seems to have had in view a similar description of a person sinking of consumption, given by Aretæus. (De Morb. Chron. i, 8.) Avicenna’s account of the nature and causes of hectic fevers is so ample, that we regret our limits will not permit us to do justice to it. The principal causes of them which he enumerates are ephemeral and putrid fevers, and abscesses of the lungs and liver. The pulse, he says, is hard, small, frequent, and weak, and may become myurus, if the fever pass into the state of marasmus. He gives, principally from Galen (de Marasmo), an interesting description of what he calls the hectic of old age, but which Galen calls old age from disease. Its symptoms, as described by these authors, are coldness and aridity of the body; the pulse slow, small, and rare, unless very weak; the urine white, thin, and watery. (iv, 1, 3.) Franciscus de Pedemontio, a writer of the fourteenth century, in like manner pronounces the hectic of old age to be a dry intemperament of the system, and recommends for it a calefacient and moistening regimen.
Those affected with hectic fevers should be well supplied with food from the commencement, on account of the pungency of the humours. The best cure is a moistening diet. You ought therefore to give for nourishment the juice of ptisan, and broths of chondrus, with a little bread in addition; and to treat the patient with a draught, of moderately cold water, when neither inflammation nor putrefaction of the humours is present. But if you conclude that the lesion is great, you must proscribe the cold water, and have recourse to the cooling applications externally. To those affected in this manner, baths are at all times proper.
Commentary. This section is taken from Oribasius (Synops. vi, 22.) It will be remarked that our author’s treatment consists of diluents and refrigerants internally, with cold applications and baths. It is entirely derived from Galen. Galen defends, in very strong terms, the use of the cold bath, which had been condemned by a celebrated physician of the name of Philip. (Meth. Med. x.) He admits, indeed, that an inflammatory or erysipelatous affection of a vital organ, and a redundance of crude and putrid humours in the body, may compel us to abstain from the bath; but, in all other circumstances of hectic fever, he insists that it is the remedium unicum. He also recommends cold drink and cold applications to the part primarily affected. He speaks favorably also of the internal administration of refrigerants, such as lettuces, which may also be applied externally. (De Marasmo.) For diet, he recommends articles of a diluent and cooling nature, such as ptisan, bread steeped in cold water, and the milk of asses. (Meth. Med. l. c.)
Aëtius, in like manner, recommends the bath, unless the use of it be contraindicated by the inflammation of some vital organ, or a fever enkindled by the putrescency of the humours. He gives minute directions for the application of the bath, the amount of which is this, that, under certain circumstances, it will be most prudent to use the tepid bath before the cold. In all cases he directs the body to be rubbed with oil before going into the bath, and to be gently rubbed with towels after coming out of it. He greatly praises the milk of asses, which he recommends to be drunk warm.
Alexander also forbids the use of the bath, when inflammation of any vital part is present. He approves greatly of the milk of asses for food. He allows wine only when the patient is of a cold and dry intemperament. He inculcates the necessity of ascertaining whether the hectic fever and marasmus be connected with chronic inflammation of any internal organ, such as the stomach, mesentery, colon, liver, kidneys, womb, lungs, or diaphragm, in order that the remedies may be applied to the seat of the disease. We need not go over the practice of the subsequent Greek authors, as they follow servilely the doctrines of Galen.
According to Avicenna, the great indications of cure are dilution and refrigeration. To the class of refrigerant remedies he refers barley-water, the milk of asses, and trochisks of camphor, with cooling epithemes and ointments. To the class of diluents he refers the bath, about the administration of which he is very particular. He directs us to use the tepid bath at first, and gradually bring the patient to bear the cold. When it can be borne, he says, the cold bath should be taken immediately after the hot. He also speaks favorably of the affusion of tepid water.
Haly Abbas directs us, when the symptoms of consumption are fairly set in, to administer before sunrise trochisks containing camphor, poppies, &c. to mitigate the cough. Like most of the other authorities, he speaks favorably of the milk of asses and of women for food. But, upon the whole, his greatest dependence seems to have been upon camphor. (Pr. iii, 26.)
Alsaharavius directs us first to make the patient go into the warm bath, and immediately afterwards to plunge him into the cold. (Pract. xxxii.)
What Avenzoar most particularly recommends is the tepid bath of fresh water, which he directs to be taken several times in the day. He speaks favorably of goat’s milk. (iii, 1, 13.)
Averrhoes recommends nearly the same practice; but he says that the bath ought to be gradually applied. He approves of the milk of women, asses, and goats, and also of refrigerant herbs. (Colliget. vii, 15.)
Serapion is very minute in his directions about the asses’ milk. He says the animals should be fed upon juicy and cooling herbs, such as grow by the side of rivers. He also directs us to medicate the bath, by previously boiling in it refrigerant herbs, such as gourds, barley, and violets. (vi, 11.)
Rhases’ directions, although they possess, perhaps, little originality, are in the highest degree interesting. He recommends for food fishes, cooling herbs, such as mallows, lettuces, citrons, cucumbers, &c. and the milk of asses or of goats. He especially commends the tepid bath, and rubbing with oil afterwards. He also speaks of applying to the chest cloths soaked in rose-water, which has been cooled in snow. When these cold applications bring on shivering, he directs them to be somewhat warmed. He forbids copious draughts of cold water. He recommends cool and humid air, and cautions to avoid smoke. When the belly is constipated, he gives opening medicines, such as prunes and manna. When, on the other hand, the belly is loose, he recommends astringents. He particularly commends trochisks of camphor, which, he says, will cool the heat of the heart, liver, or chest. (Ad Mansor. x, 3; see also Contin. xxxi.) In the latter work he informs us that physicians were divided in opinion regarding the use of the bath in hectic fever. He forbids the cold bath and cold drink when the patient is much wasted, because the cold penetrates to the vital organs and impairs them.
As a tertian paroxysm commences with a rigor, and a quotidian without one, the fever composed of both brings on a degree of shivering, which is less than a rigor, and greater than chillness, as being a mixture of these two extremes. Whence, this fever has not improperly got the name of semi-tertian. These fevers are formed in two ways, either the two paroxysms uniting into one, or being mixed together from the commencement. When, therefore, the tertian prevails, the fever is attended with a strong shivering, and has even a certain degree of rigor at the attack. Such a fever also soon becomes hotter and more ardent, and brings on some vomiting of bile, or a discharge of it downwards, or by a sweat. When the other, the pituitous, prevails, there is coldness of the extremities, but little shivering; neither are they accompanied with thirst, nor are they ardent. But when the tertian intermittent and continual quotidian are equal in magnitude, the commencement of the paroxysm is with shivering; and when that from phlegm prevails, there are contractions and shiverings; but if the hotter species prevail, they soon acquire heat. This is the true semi-tertian, being a fever formed from an equal combination of both, a tertian intermittent, and a continual quotidian. But that which is not the true semi-tertian has either more of the bilious, or of the pituitous character; which species is of easiest cure, the smaller humour being readily overcome by the prevalence of the greater, or by the aid of art. When the pituitous state prevails, we must use especially the remedies mentioned for the quotidian; or, if yellow bile, those for the tertian, always bestowing most attention upon that which is most urgent, but not neglecting the other entirely.
Commentary. The reader may find histories of the semi-tertian in the Epidemics of Hippocrates, where see the Commentary of Galen. Our author’s account is condensed from Galen (de Diff. Febr. ii, 2, and de Typis, 4.) See Aëtius (v, 81); Actuarius (Morb. Dig. ii, 1); Nonnus (142); Celsus (iii, 8); Palladius (21.) Celsus describes it as the second species of tertian in the following terms: “Alterum longe perniciosius, quod tertio quidem die revertitur, ex octo autem et quadraginta horis fere sex et triginta per accessionem occupat, interdum etiam vel minus, vel plus; neque ex toto in remissione desistit, sed tantum levius est. Id genus plerique medici ἠμιτριτᾶιον appellant.” He approves of bleeding at the commencement, and of a diet that is nutritive without being heating.
Palladius says that the semi-tertian is compounded of a tertian intermittent, and a continual quotidian, the quotidian paroxysm taking place every day, and the tertian every alternate day. He ascribes their origin to a mixture of putrid bile and phlegm. (21.) Haly Abbas gives a similar account of it. He calls it a fever compounded of a tertian and quotidian, and remarks that it has a tendency to pass into hectic. He treats it with diluents and refrigerants. (Pract. iii, 17.) Avicenna gives a very detailed account of the symptoms and cure of the semi-tertians. He remarks that the fever is apt to be protracted and to pass into the hectic. (iv, 1, 4.) See Rhases (Cont. xxxi.) All his authorities agree in describing it as a compound of the tertian and quotidian, having a severe paroxysm the one day and a slighter the following. It is said to be generally protracted to the fortieth day.
Platearius, and the other earlier modern writers, describe the semi-tertian in nearly the same terms as the ancients. It is a species of fever still occasionally met with in warm climates. (See Littré’s Hippocrates, t. ii, 569.)
We call those diseases epidemic and common, that attack many persons together; which, having a common origin, have also a common cause. Common diseases are produced by common food of a bad quality, drinking of bad water, inordinate fatigue, the want of the customary exercise, deprivation or repletion from the prevalence either of a famine or of great abundance. The nature of the country will also often occasion common diseases, either from its lying adjacent to marshes, or to some deep pit, which emits a deleterious and pernicious exhalation. These things are constantly occurring. But the atmosphere which surrounds us may alter the temperaments, by being hotter, colder, or more humid than ordinary. For to other causes we are not all exposed together, nor do we come in contact with them for the whole day; but the ambient air is diffused around all, and is inhaled by respiration. Now, the bodies of animals must undergo a change along with these changes as to temperature. He, therefore, who is acquainted with these matters, will not only be able to predict the diseases which are to arise from every state of the atmosphere, but will be able also to prevent them by substituting a counteracting regimen to the intemperament of the air. Wherefore, those bodies which are disposed to a certain disease, from a peculiar intemperament, will be affected by a similar temperature of the surrounding air. But those of an opposite temperament to the atmosphere will not only not be hurt but will be improved; the excess of their intemperament being overcome by the opposite excess. He that is acquainted with these things will preserve the health, by superinducing the contraries to the constitution of the body; sometimes perhaps using refrigerants, and sometimes heating things, cooling with water, using restricted exercise and food, and plenty of dilution; and warming, by means of increased clothing, exercise, more food and less drink. And, by kindling a great pile, one may change the air from a humid state to that which is dry and hot, as they say was done by Acron of Agrigentum.
Commentary. This Section is mostly taken from Oribasius (Synops. vi, 24, and Euporist. 1.)
The works of Hippocrates contain many interesting remarks on the origin and nature of epidemics. He states that diseases in general may be said to arise either from the food we eat or the air we breathe. When, therefore, a disease seizes on a multitude of persons of different ages, sexes, and habits, he justly infers that it must arise from the latter cause. (See de Flatibus, Epidem. cum Commentariis Galeni.) The fevers described by Hippocrates, in his ‘Books of Epidemics,’ are in general intermittent and remittent fevers. In his first and third books he describes forty-two cases of fever, twenty-five of which had a fatal termination. They had evidently been selected from a larger number. The descriptions are rigidly confined to a detail of the characters of the season and the symptoms of the epidemic. In general, scarcely any remedial means are mentioned. In some of the cases slight exanthemata speedily disappearing are mentioned among the symptoms. These are more likely to have been petechiæ than the typhous eruption. It is reported of Hippocrates, that, like Acron of Agrigentum, he changed the morbific state of the atmosphere at Athens by kindling fires. (Galen, Therap. ad Pison; Aëtius, v, 94.) Acron’s method of purifying the atmosphere is mentioned by Plutarch (de Iside et Osiride.) For an account of Acron, see Fabricii (Biblioth. Græc. xiii, 32); Conringii (Introduct.) and Mangeti (Bibl. Med.) Pliny says of fire as a corrective of the state of the atmosphere, “Est et ipsis ignibus medica vis. Pestilentiæ, quæ solis obscuratione contrahitur, ignis suffitu multiformiter auxiliari, certum est. Empedocles et Hippocrates id demonstravere diversis locis.” (H. N. xxxvi, 69.) With the same intention Simeon Seth proposes fumigations with frankincense. The historian Herodian relates that fumigations with aromatics were recommended as a preventive of the plague. (i.)
Galen, in like manner, attributes the origin of epidemics to the state of the atmosphere in a great measure, but also holds that the nature of the country may contribute; as, for example, its vicinity to a gulf like the Charonian, from which miasmata are exhaled that taint the air and occasion diseases. In many passages of his ‘Commentary on the Epidemics’ of Hippocrates, he states that epidemical diseases arise from the condition of the country in which they prevail. Lucretius accounts for the prevalence of epidemical diseases upon similar principles: