The Egyptians in general are excessively fond of music; and yet they regard the study of this fascinating art (like dancing) as unworthy to employ any portion of the time of a man of sense; and as exercising too powerful an effect upon the passions, and leading a man into gaiety and dissipation and vice. Hence it was condemned by the Prophet: but it is used, notwithstanding, even in religious ceremonies; especially by the darweeshes. The Egyptians have very few books on music; and these are not understood by their modern musicians. The natural liking of the Egyptians for music is shown by their habit of regulating their motions, and relieving the dulness of their occupations, in various labours, by songs or chants. Thus do the boatmen, in rowing, etc.; the peasants in raising water; the porters in carrying heavy weights with poles; men, boys, and girls, in assisting builders, by bringing bricks, stones, and mortar, and removing rubbish: so also, the sawyers, reapers, and many other labourers. Though the music of the Egyptians is of a style very difficult for foreigners to acquire or imitate, the children very easily and early attain it. The practice of chanting the Kur-án, which is taught in all their schools, contributes to increase their natural fondness for music.

How science was cherished by the Arabs when all the nations of Europe were involved in the grossest ignorance, and how much the former profited by the works of ancient Greek writers, is well known. It appears that they formed the system of music which has prevailed among them for many centuries partly from Greek, and partly from Persian and Indian treatises. From the Greek language are derived the most general Arabic term for music, namely, “mooseeka,” and the names of some of the Arab musical instruments; but most of the technical terms used by the Arab musicians are borrowed from the Persian and Indian languages. There is a striking degree of similarity between many of the airs which I have heard in Egypt and some of the popular melodies of Spain;^[449] and it is not surprising that this is the case: for music was much cultivated among the Arabs of Spain; and the library of the Escurial contains many Arabic treatises on this art.

The most remarkable peculiarity in the Arab system of music is the division of tones into thirds. Hence I have heard Egyptian musicians urge against the European systems of music that they are deficient in the number of sounds. These small and delicate gradations of sound give a peculiar softness to the performances of the Arab musicians, which are generally of a plaintive character: but they are difficult to discriminate with exactness, and are therefore seldom observed in the vocal and instrumental music of those persons who have not made a regular study of the art. Most of the popular airs of the Egyptians, though of a similar character, in most respects, to the music of their professional performers, are very simple; consisting of only a few notes, which serve for every one or two lines of a song, and which are therefore repeated many times. I must confess that I generally take great delight in the more refined kind of music which I occasionally hear in Egypt; and the more I become habituated to the style, the more I am pleased with it; though, at the same time, I must state that I have not met with many Europeans who enjoy it in the same degree as myself. The natives of Egypt are generally enraptured with the performances of their vocal and instrumental musicians: they applaud with frequent exclamations of “Allah!”^[450] and “God approve thee!” “God preserve thy voice!” and similar expressions.

The male professional musicians are called “A′láteeyeh;” in the singular, “A′látee,” which properly signifies “a player upon an instrument;” but they are generally both instrumental and vocal performers. They are people of very dissolute habits; and are regarded as scarcely less disreputable characters than the public dancers. They are, however, hired at most grand entertainments, to amuse the company; and on these occasions they are usually supplied with brandy, or other spirituous liquors, which they sometimes drink until they can neither sing nor strike a chord. The sum commonly paid to each of them for one night’s performance is equal to about two or three shillings; but they often receive considerably more. The guests generally contribute the sum.

There are also female professional singers. These are called “’Awálim;” in the singular, “’A′l’meh,” or “’A′limeh;” an appellation literally signifying “a learned female.” The ’Awálim are often hired on the occasion of a fête in the hareem of a person of wealth. There is generally a small, elevated apartment, called a “tukeyseh,” or “mughanna,” adjoining the principal saloon of the hareem, from which it is separated only by a screen of wooden lattice-work; or there is some other convenient place in which the female singers may be concealed from the sight of the master of the house, should he be present with his women. But when there is a party of male guests, they generally sit in the court, or in a lower apartment, to hear the songs of the ’Awálim, who, in this case, usually sit at a window of the hareem, concealed by the lattice-work. Some of them are also instrumental performers. I have heard the most celebrated ’Awálim in Cairo, and have been more charmed with their songs than with the best performances of the A′láteeyeh, and more so, I think I may truly add, than with any other music that I have ever enjoyed. They are often very highly paid. I have known instances of sums equal to more than fifty guineas being collected for a single ’A’l’meh from the guests at an entertainment in the house of a merchant, where none of the contributors were persons of much wealth. So powerful is the effect of the singing of a very accomplished ’A′l’meh, that her audience, in the height of their excitement, often lavish upon her sums which they can ill afford to lose. There are, among the ’Awálim in Cairo, a few who are not altogether unworthy of the appellation of “learned females;” having some literary accomplishments. There are also many of an inferior class, who sometimes dance in the hareem: hence, travellers have often misapplied the name of “almé,” meaning “’ál’meh,” to the common dancing-girls, of whom an account will be given in another chapter of this work.

The Egyptians have a great variety of musical instruments. Those which are generally used at private concerts are the “kemengeh,” “kánoon,” “’ood,” and “náy.”

The “kemengeh”^[451] is a kind of viol. Its name, which is Persian, and more properly written “kemángeh,” signifies “a bow-instrument.” This instrument, and all the others of which I insert engravings, I have drawn with the camera-lucida. The total length of the kemengeh which is here represented is thirty-eight inches. The sounding-body is a cocoa-nut, of which about a fourth part has been cut off. It is pierced with many small holes. Over the front of it is strained a piece of the skin of a fish of the genus “silurus,” called “bayád;” and upon this rests the bridge. The neck is of ebony inlaid with ivory; and of a cylindrical form. At the bottom of it is a piece of ivory; and the head, in which the pegs are inserted, is also of ivory. The pegs are of beech; and their heads, of ivory. The foot is of iron: it passes through the sounding-body, and is inserted into the neck, to the depth of four or five inches. Each of the two chords consists of about sixty horse-hairs: at the lower end, they are attached to an iron ring, just below the sounding-body: towards the other extremity, each is lengthened with a piece of lamb’s gut, by which it is attached to its peg. Over the chords, a little below their junction with the gut-strings, a double band of leather is tied, passing round the neck of the instrument. The bow is thirty-four inches and a half in length. Its form is shown by the engraving. The stick is generally of ash. The horse-hairs, passed through a hole at the head of the bow-stick and secured by a knot, and attached at the other end to an iron ring, are tightened or slackened by a band of leather which passes through the ring just mentioned and through another ring at the foot of the bow. A performer on the kemengeh, in passing the bow from one chord to the other, turns the kemengeh about sixty degrees round. The sketches introduced, are from drawings which I have made with the camera-lucida. Together, they represent an ordinary Egyptian band, such as is generally seen at a private entertainment. The performer on the kemengeh usually sits on the right hand of him who performs on the kánoon, or opposite (that is, facing) the latter, on the left hand of whom sits the performer on the ’ood; and next to this last is the performer on the náy. Sometimes there are other musicians, whose instruments will be mentioned hereafter; and often two singers.

The “kánoon” is a kind of dulcimer. Its name is from the Greek κανὼν, or from the same origin; and has the same signification; that is, “rule,” “law,” “custom.” The instrument from which the engraving here given was taken is, perhaps, an inch or two longer than some others which I have seen. Its greatest length is thirty-nine inches and three-quarters; and its breadth, sixteen inches: its depth is two inches and one-tenth. The kánoon is sometimes made entirely of walnut-wood, with the exception of some ornamental parts. In the instrument which I have drawn, the face and the back are of a fine kind of deal: the sides are of beech. The piece in which the pegs are inserted is of beech: and so also is the ridge along its interior edge, through which the cords are passed. The pegs are of poplar-wood. The bridge is of fine deal. In the central part of the face of the instrument is a circular piece of wood of a reddish colour, pierced with holes; and towards the acute angle of the face is another piece of similar wood, likewise pierced with holes. In that part of the face upon which the bridge rests are five oblong apertures, corresponding with the five feet of the bridge. A piece of fishes’ skin nine inches wide is glued over this part; and the five feet of the bridge rest upon those parts of the skin which cover the five apertures above mentioned; slightly depressing the skin. The chords are of lamb’s gut. There are three chords to each note; and, altogether, twenty-four treble chords. The shortest side of the instrument is veneered with walnut-wood, inlaid with mother-of-pearl. The instrument is played with two plectra; one plectrum attached to the fore-finger of each hand. Each plectrum is a small, thin piece of buffalo’s horn; and is placed between the finger and a ring, or thimble, formed of a flat piece of brass or silver, in the manner represented in the sketch.—The instrument is placed on the knees of the performer. Under the hands of a skilful player, the kánoon pleases me more than any other Egyptian instrument without an accompaniment; and to a band it is an important accession.

The “’ood” is a lute, which is played with a plectrum. This has been for many centuries the instrument most commonly used by the best Arab musicians, and is celebrated by numerous poets. Its name (the original signification of which is “wood”), with the article el prefixed to it, is the source whence are derived the terms liuto in Italian, luth in French, lute in English, etc. The length of the ’ood, as represented in the middle of the accompanying engraving, measuring from the button, or angle of the neck, is twenty-five inches and a half. The body of it is composed of fine deal, with edges, etc., of ebony: the neck of ebony, faced with box and an ebony edge. On the face of the body of the instrument, in which are one large and two small shemsehs of ebony, is glued a piece of fishes’ skin, under that part of the chords to which the plectrum is applied, to prevent the wood from being worn away by the plectrum. The instrument has seven double strings; two to each note. They are of lamb’s gut. The order of these double chords is singular: the double chord of the lowest note is that which corresponds to the chord of the highest note in our violins, etc.: next in the scale above this is the fifth (that is, counting the former as the first): then the seventh, second, fourth, sixth, and third. The plectrum is a slip of a vulture’s feather.

The “náy,” which is the fourth and last of the instruments which I have mentioned as most commonly used at private concerts, is a kind of flute. There are several kinds of náy, differing from each other in dimensions, but in little else. The most common is that here represented. It has been called the darweesh’s flute; because often used at the zikrs of darweeshes to accompany the songs of the “munshids.” It is a simple reed, about eighteen inches in length, seven-eighths of an inch in diameter at the upper extremity, and three-quarters of an inch at the lower. It is pierced with six holes in front, and generally with another hole at the back. The sounds are produced by blowing, through a very small aperture of the lips, against the edge of the orifice of the tube, and directing the wind chiefly within the tube. By blowing with more or less force, sounds are produced an octave higher or lower. In the hands of a good performer, the náy yields fine, mellow tones; but it requires much practice to sound it well. A náy is sometimes made of a portion of a gun-barrel.

Another instrument often used at private concerts is a small tambourine called “rikk,” similar to one of which an engraving will be found in this chapter, page 330, but rather smaller.

A kind of mandoline, called “tamboor,” is also used at concerts in Egypt; but mostly by Greeks and other foreigners. These musicians likewise use a dulcimer, called “santeer,” which resembles the kánoon, excepting that it has two sides oblique, instead of one (the two opposite sides equally inclining together), has double chords of wire, instead of treble chords of lamb’s gut, and is beaten with two sticks instead of the little plectra.

A curious kind of viol, called “rabáb,” is much used by poor singers, as an accompaniment to the voice. There are two kinds of viol which bear this name; the “rabáb el-mughannee” (or singers’ viol), and the “rabáb esh-shá’er” (or poet’s viol); which differ from each other only in this, that the former has two chords, and the latter but one. The latter is that of which I give an engraving; but it will be observed that it is convertible into the former kind, having two pegs. It is thirty-two inches in length. The body of it is a frame of wood, of which the front is covered with parchment, and the back uncovered. The foot is of iron: the chord of horse-hairs, like those of the kemengeh. The bow, which is twenty-eight inches long, is similar to that of the kemengeh. This instrument is always used by the public reciters of the romance of Aboo-Zeyd, in chanting the poetry. The reciter of this romance is called “Shá’er” (or poet); and hence the instrument is called “the poet’s viol,” and “the Aboo-Zeydee viol.” The Shá’er himself uses this instrument; and another performer on the same kind of rabáb generally accompanies him.

The instruments used in wedding-processions, and the processions of darweeshes, etc., are chiefly a hautboy, called “zemr,” and several kinds of drums, of which the most common kinds are the “tabl beledee” (or country drum, that is Egyptian drum), and the “tabl Shámee” (or Syrian drum). The former is of a similar kind to our common military drum; but not so deep. It is hung obliquely. The latter is a kind of kettle-drum, of tin-copper, with a parchment face. It is generally about sixteen inches in diameter, and not more than four in depth in the centre; and is beaten with two slender sticks. The performer suspends it to his neck, by a string attached to two rings fixed to the edge of the instrument. I have represented these drums in the sketch of a bridal procession, and in another engraving opposite page 48.

A pair of large kettle-drums, called “nakákeer” (in the singular, “nakkárah”), are generally seen in most of the great religious processions connected with the pilgrimage, etc., in Cairo. They are both of copper, and similar in form; each about two-thirds of a sphere; but are of unequal dimensions: the flat surface, or face, of the larger is about two feet, or more, in diameter; and that of the latter, nearly a foot and a half. They are placed upon aupon a camel, attached to the fore part of the saddle, upon which the person who beats them rides. The larger is placed on the right.

Darweeshes, in religious processions, etc., and in begging, often make use of a little tabl, or kettle-drum, called “báz,” six or seven inches in diameter; which is held in the left hand, by a little projection in the centre of the back; and beaten by the right hand, with a short leather strap, or a stick. They also use cymbals, which are called “kás,” on similar occasions. The báz is used by the Musahhir, to attract attention to his cry in the nights of Ramadán. Castanets of brass, called “ságát,” are used by the public female and male dancers. Each dancer has two pairs of these instruments. They are attached, each by a loop of string, to the thumb and second finger; and have a more pleasing sound than castanets of wood or ivory.

There are two instruments which are generally found in the hareem of a person of moderate wealth, and which the women often use for their diversion. One of these is a tambourine, called “tár,” of which I insert an engraving. It is eleven inches in diameter. The hoop is overlaid with mother-of-pearl, tortoise-shell, and white bone, or ivory, both without and within; and has ten double circular plates of brass attached to it; each two pairs having a wire passing through their centres. The tár is held by the left or right hand, and beaten with the fingers of that hand, and by the other hand. The fingers of the hand which holds the instrument, striking only near the hoop, produce higher sounds than the other hand, which strikes in the centre.—A tambourine of a larger and more simple kind than that here described, without the metal plates, is often used by the lower orders.—The other instrument alluded to in the commencement of this paragraph is a kind of drum, called “darabukkeh.” The best kind is made of wood, covered with mother-of-pearl and tortoise-shell, etc. One of this description is here represented with the tár. It is fifteen inches in length; covered with a piece of fishes’ skin at the larger extremity, and open at the smaller. It is placed under the left arm; generally suspended by a string that passes over the left shoulder; and is beaten with both hands. Like the tár, it yields different sounds when beaten near the edge and in the middle. A more common kind of darabukkeh is made of earth, and differs a little in form from that just described. An engraving of it is here given.

The boatmen of the Nile very often use an earthen darabukkeh; but of a larger size than that used in hareems: generally from a foot and a half to two feet in length. This is also used by some low story-tellers and others. The boatmen employ, as an accompaniment to their earthen drum, a double reed pipe, called “zummárah.”^[452] There is also another kind of double reed pipe, called “arghool;” of which one of the reeds is much longer than the other, and serves as a drone, or continuous bass.^[453] This, likewise, is used by boatmen; and sometimes it is employed, instead of the náy, at zikrs. Both of these reed pipes produce harsh sounds; and those of the latter much resemble the sounds of the bag-pipe. A rude kind of bag-pipe (“zummárah bi-soan”) is sometimes, but rarely, seen in Egypt: its bag is a small goat’s-skin.

I shall now close this chapter with a few specimens of Egyptian music; chiefly popular songs. These I note in accordance with the manner in which they are commonly sung; without any of the embellishments which are added to them by the A′láteeyeh. The airs of these are not always sung to the same words; but the words are generally similar in style to those which I insert, or at least as silly; though often abounding with indecent metaphors, or with plain ribaldry.—It should be added, that distinct enunciation, and a quavering voice, are characteristics of the Egyptian mode of singing.

No. 1.

(The preceding lines are repeated after each of the following stanzas, sometimes as a chorus.)

No. 2.

No. 3.

No. 4.

THE CALL TO PRAYER.

The call to prayer, repeated from the mád’nehs (or menarets) of the mosques, I have already mentioned.^[475] I have often heard this call, in Cairo, chanted in the following manner; and in a style more or less similar, it is chanted by most of the muëddins of this city.