1. It gives me great pleasure to find, that, while I have been attempting to preserve memorials of the manners and customs of the most polished modern Arab people, one of my learned friends (M. Fulgence Fresnel) has been occupied, with eminent success, in rescuing from oblivion many interesting notices of the history of the early Arabs, and that another (Mr. [now, Sir Gardner] Wilkinson) has been preparing to impart to us an account of the private life, manners, etc., of the Ancient Egyptians. [The very high and just commendation which the works of these two authors (published since the above was written) have obtained from eminent critics renders it needless for me to add my humble testimony to their merits.]
2. Among the memoirs in “the great French work” on Egypt, is one entitled “Essai sur les mœurs des habitans modernes de l’Egypte;” but its author appears to me to have fallen into an error of considerable magnitude, in applying to the Egyptians in general, observations which were, in truth, for the most part descriptive of the manners and customs of their naturalized rulers, the Memlooks. It is probable that the Egyptians in some degree imitated, when they were able to do so, the habits and customs of this class: I may however, venture to affirm, that the essay here alluded to does not convey a true notion of their present moral and social state. Its author, moreover, shows himself to have been often extremely careless both in his observations and inquiries: this is particularly evident in his singular misstatement of the correspondence of French and Mohammadan hours, and in the first two pages (in the 8vo. edition) of the section on public fêtes. He has given many just philosophical observations; but these occupy too large a proportion of a memoir scarcely exceeding one-third of the extent of the present work. To show that these remarks are not made in an invidious spirit, I most willingly express my high admiration of other parts of “the great work” (especially the contributions of M. Jomard), relating to subjects which have alike employed my mind and pen, and upon which I shall probably publish my observations.—Burckhardt’s “Arabic Proverbs,” and their illustrations, convey many notions of remarkable customs and traits of character of the modern Egyptians; but are very far from composing a complete exposition, or in every case, a true one; for national proverbs are bad tests of the morality of a people.—There is one workwork, however, which presents most admirable pictures of the manners and customs of the Arabs, and particularly of those of the Egyptians: it is “The Thousand and One Nights,” or Arabian Nights’ Entertainments: if the English reader had possessed a close translation of it with sufficient illustrative notes, I might almost have spared myself the labour of the present undertaking.—[This remark, respecting “The Thousand and One Nights,” was, I believe, the cause of my being employed, since the publication of the first edition of the present work, to translate those admirable tales, and to illustrate them by explanatory notes.]
3. Thus commonly pronounced, for Esh-Shaaránee.
4. He professes to have had more than thirty wives in the course of his life; but, in saying so, I believe he greatly exaggerates.
5. It is a common belief among the Egyptians, that every European traveller who visits their country is an emissary from his King; and it is difficult to convince them that this is not the case: so strange to them is the idea of a man’s incurring great trouble and expense for the purpose of acquiring the knowledge of foreign countries and nations.
6. Kur-án, chap, iv., ver. 96.
7. Kur-án, chap. lvi., ver 78.
8. David Urquhart, Esq., author of “The Spirit of the East,” etc.
9. Here I must mention, that I have written “Básha” instead of “Pásha” in conformity with the pronunciation of the Egyptians.
10. Strictly speaking, it has a sound between that of “a” in “bad” and that of “u” in “bud;” sometimes approximating more to the former, and sometimes to the latter.
11. Its sound, however, often approximates to that of “a” in “ball.”
12. Respecting this term, see the first of the notes in Chapter xxvi.
13. This is the temperature in the shade. At Thebes, I have observed the thermometer to rise above 110° during a khamáseen wind, in the shade.
14. This remark was written before the terrible plague of the present year [1835], which was certainly introduced from Turkey, and extended throughout the whole of Egypt, though its ravages were not great in the southern parts. It has destroyed not less than eighty thousand persons in Cairo: that is, one-third of the population; and far more, I believe, than two hundred thousand in all Egypt. According to a report made by the government, the victims of this plague in Cairo were about forty thousand; but I have been informed, on high authority, that the government made it a rule to report only half the number of deaths in this case.
15. This is the name by which the modern Egyptians call their country, as well as its metropolis.
16. With red ochre and lime wash.
17. No. 1 is a view and section of a portion of the most simple kind. This and the other four kinds are here represented on a scale of about one-seventh of the real size. No. 6 shows the general proportions of the side of a projecting window. The portion A is, in most instances, of lattice-work similar to No. 1, and comprises about twelve rows of beads in the width: the portion B is commonly either of the same kind, or like No. 2 or No. 3; and the small lattice C, which is attached by hinges, is generally similar to No. 4.
18. Commonly similar to No. 1, or No. 5.
19. Some large houses have two courts: the inner for the hareem; and in the latter, or both of these, there is usually a little enclosure of arched wood-work in which trees and flowers are raised.
20. In the accompanying view of the court of a house, the door of the hareem is that which faces the spectator.
21. Apparently a corruption of the Persian “dargáh.”—The view of a ká’ah opposite p. 14 will serve to illustrate the description of the mandar’ah.
22. The “leewán” is not to be confounded with the “deewán,” which is afterwards mentioned.
23. One of the chief reasons of the custom here mentioned is, to avoid defiling a mat or carpet upon which prayer is usually made. This, as many authors have observed, illustrates passages of the Scriptures—Exodus iii. 5, and Joshua v. 15.
24. See Jeremiah xxii. 14.
25. In the larger houses, and some others, there is also, adjoining the principal saloon, an elevated closet, designed as an orchestra, for female singers. A description of this will be found in the chapter on music.
26. This word is said to be derived from “kamar” (the moon). Baron Hammer-Purgstall thinks (see the Vienna “Jahrbücher der Literatur,” lxxxi. bd., pp. 71, 72) that it has its origin from Chumaruje [or, as he is called by the Arabs in general, Khumáraweyh], the second prince of the dynasty of the Benee-Tooloon, who governed in Egypt in the end of the ninth century of the Christian era, and that it proves the art of staining glass to have been in a flourishing state in Cairo at that period.
27. Excepting in the kitchen, in which are several small receptacles for fire, constructed on a kind of bench of brick. Hence, and for several other reasons (among which may be mentioned the sober and early habits of the people, the general absence of draperies in the apartments, and the construction of the floors, which are of wood overlaid with stone), the destruction of a house by fire seldom happens in Cairo; but when such an accident does occur, an extensive conflagration is the usual result; for a great quantity of wood, mostly deal, and of course excessively dry, is employed in the construction of the houses.
28. See again the engraving opposite p. 9.
29. This is the measure of the sliding bolt.
30. This term is also applied sometimes to the door of the hareem.
31. The earthen pots used in the construction of these pigeon-houses are of an oval form, with a wide mouth, which is placed outwards, and a small hole at the other end. Each pair of pigeons occupies a separate pot.
32. Vulgarly called “Dumyát.”
33. The Muslim Egyptians, Copts, Syrians, and Jews of Egypt, with few exceptions, speak no language but the Arabic, which is also the language generally used by the foreigners settled in this country. The Nubians, among themselves, speak their own dialects.
34. The population of Cairo has increased to this amount, from about 200,000, within the last three or four years. Since the computation here stated was made, the plague of this year [1835] has destroyed not fewer than one-third of its inhabitants, as before mentioned; but this deficiency will be rapidly supplied from the villages.
35. About one-third of the population of the metropolis consists of adult males. Of this number (or 80,000) about 30,000 are merchants, petty shopkeepers, and artisans; 20,000, domestic servants; 15,000, common labourers, porters, etc.: the remainder chiefly consists of military and civil servants of the government.
36. I place but little reliance on the accounts of ancient authors on this subject.
37. It has been suggested to me that, if corn was exported, something of equal value was imported; and that the exportation of corn, or anything else, would give a stimulus to industry and to population: but I do not know what could be imported that would fill up the measure of the food necessary to sustain a population much greater than that which would consume the corn retained.
38. During the present year [1835] more than 100,000 bales of cotton (each bale weighing a hundred-weight and three-quarters) have been shipped at Alexandria. The price paid for this quantity by the merchants exceeded £700,000. The quantity exported last year was 34,000 bales, which is considerably less than usual.—The policy above recommended is strongly advocated by Ibráheem Básha.
39. This term was formerly used to designate the Arabian townspeople and villagers, while the Arabs who dwelt in the Desert were called “Aaráb,” or “Aarábees.” The Arabs dwelling in houses now term themselves “Owlád-el-’Arab,” or Sons of the Arabs.
40. Feminine, “Bedaweeyeh.”
41. In the feminine, “Masreeyeh,” “Bint-Masr,” and “Bint-el-Beled.”
42. Feminine, “Felláhah.”
43. Thus commonly pronounced for “Fir’own.”
44. Tooth-ache is, however, a very common disorder in Egypt, as it was in ancient times. This, at least, was probably the case, as Herodotus (lib. ii., cap. 84) mentions dentists among the classes of Egyptian physicians. It is, of course, most prevalent among the higher orders.
45. A few of the servants, and some others, shave their beards. The respect which Orientals in general pay to the beard has often been remarked. They swear by it, and say that a man disgraces it by an evil action. The punishment recorded in 2 Samuel, ch. x., v. 4, has frequently been practised in modern times, but not so often as the shaving of the whole of the beard.
46. The Muslims hold it to be inconsistent with the honour that is due to everything that has appertained to the human body to leave upon the ground the shavings or clippings of hair, the parings of nails, etc., which, therefore, they generally bury in the earth.
47. Persons of literary and religious professions generally disapprove of the shoosheh.
48. They are mentioned in the “Mishcát-ul-Masábih,” vol. ii., p. 359, and are observed by both sexes.
49. The fashion of their dress remains almost the same during the lapse of centuries.
50. In Arabic, “libás.”
51. Called “dikkeh,” or “tikkeh.”
52. The Prophet forbade men to wear silk clothing, but allowed women to do so. The prohibition is, however, attended to by very few modern Muslims, excepting the Wahhábees.
53. The stripes are seldom plain; they are generally figured or flowered.
54. See the foremost figure in the accompanying engraving.
55. See the figure to the left in the same engraving.
56. Called “tákeeyeh,” or “’arakeeyeh.”
57. “Khátim.”—It is allowable to wear it on a finger of the left hand.
58. See St. John’s Gospel iii. 33; and Exodus xxxix. 30.
59. Therefore, giving the ring to another person is the utmost mark of confidence.—See Genesis xli. 42.
60. This is a very ancient custom.—See Ezekiel ix. 2, 3, 11. The dawáyeh is represented in a cut in Chapter IX.
61. The zaaboot is mostly worn in the winter.
62. A kind of blue and white plaid (called “miláyeh”)“miláyeh”) is also worn by some men, but more commonly by women, in the account of whose dress it will be further described: the men throw it over the shoulders, or wrap it about the body.
64. This appellation (of which “’ulama” is the plural) signifies a man of science or learning.
65. “Sheykh” here signifies master, or doctor.
66. See 2 Kings ix. 30 (where, in our common version, we find the words, “painted her face” for “painted her eyes”), and Ezekiel xxiii. 40.
67. Scissors are often used to reduce the width of the eye-brows, and to give them a more arched form.
68. Lawsonia inermis; also called “Egyptian privet.”
69. The application of this dye to the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet is said to have an agreeable effect upon the skin; particularly to prevent its being too tender and sensitive.
70. The depilatory most commonly used by the Egyptian women is a kind of resin, called libán shámee, applied in a melted state: but this, they pretend, is not always necessary: by applying the blood of a bat to the skin of a newly-born female infant, on the parts where they wish no hair to grow, they assert that they accomplish this desire. A female upon whom this application has been made is termed “muwatwatah”; from “watwát,” a bat. Some women pluck out the hair after merely rubbing the part with the ashes of charcoal.
71. Egyptian women swear by the side-lock (as men do by the beard), generally holding it when they utter the oath, “Wa-hayát maksoosee!”
72. This is similar in form to the tób of women of the lower orders.
73. See Genesis xxiv. 65; and Isaiah iii. 23. See also I Corinthians xi. 10, and a marginal note on that verse.
74. Some of those who are descended from the Prophet wear a green burko’.
75. For “muláäh.”
76. There is a superior kind of miláyeh, of silk, and of various colours; but this is now seldom worn. The two pieces which compose the miláyeh are sewed together, like those which compose the habarah.
77. The classical reader will recognise, in this picturesque garment, an article of ancient Greek and Roman female attire.
78. Literally, “the son of his paternal uncle.”
79. In Cairo, it is the fashion to change the first five female names here mentioned, and the last, into Khaddoogeh, ’Eiyoosheh, Ammooneh, Fattoomeh, Zennoobeh, and Neffooseh; and some other names are changed to the same “measure” as these; which measure implies, in these cases, a superior degree of dignity.
80. On an improper use of this kind of surname, see a note towards the close of Chapter IV.
81. It is customary among the peasants throughout a great part of Egypt, on the first occasion of shaving a child’s head, to slay a victim, generally a goat, at the tomb of some saint in or near their village, and to make a feast with the meat, of which their friends, and any other persons who please, partake. This is most common in Upper Egypt, and among the tribes not very long established on the banks of the Nile. Their Pagan ancestors in Arabia observed this custom, and usually gave, as alms to the poor, the weight of the hair in silver or gold. The victim is called “’akeekah,” and is offered as a ransom for the child from hell. The custom of shaving one part of a child’s head and leaving another was forbidden by the Prophet.
82. See Isaiah xlix. 22.
83. It is mentioned by Diodorus Siculus (lib. i., cap. 20), that the ancient Egyptians clothed and reared their children at a very trifling expense.
84. “The structure of Eastern government is but the enlargement of the paternal roof.” (Urquhart’s Spirit of the East, vol ii., p. 249.)
85. Among the peasants, not unfrequently at the age of twelve, thirteen, or fourteen years.
86. For a description of the ornaments here mentioned see the Appendix: the kurs and safa are also represented in a preceding engraving, page 36.
87. A custom mentioned by Strabo (p. 824), as prevailing among the Egyptians in his time, is still universally practised in every part of Egypt, both by the Muslims and Copts, excepting in Alexandria and perhaps a few other places on the shore of the Mediterranean: it is also common, if not equally prevalent, in Arabia. Reland, who imperfectly describes this custom (De Religione Mohammedica, p. 75, edit. 1717), remarks its being mentioned likewise by Galen.
88. See the Chapter on music.
89. This term is a corruption of “fakeeh,” which latter appellation is generally given in Egypt only to a person deeply versed in religion and law; a man who merely recites the Kur-án, etc., professionally, or who teaches others to do so, being commonly called a “fikee.”
90. Friday, being the sabbath of the Muslims, is a holiday to the school-boys and fikee.
91. The cubit employed in measuring Egyptian cloths is equal to twenty-two inches and two-thirds.
92. The usual punishment is beating on the soles of the feet with a palm-stick.
93. The Arabic letters are often used as numerals.
94. I have since found an anecdote almost exactly similar to the above in the Cairo edition of the “Thousand and One Nights:” therefore either my informant’s account is not strictly true, or the man alluded to by him was, in the main, an imitator: the latter is not improbable, as I have been credibly informed of several similar imitations, and of one which I know to be a fact.
95. The young daughters of persons of the middle classes are sometimes instructed with the boys in a public school; but they are usually veiled, and hold no intercourse with the boys. I have often seen a well-dressed girl reading the Kur-án in a boys’ school.
96. Ch. 112.—In quoting passages in the Kur-án, I have sometimes followed Sale’s translation, to the general fidelity of which I willingly add my testimony. I should, however, mention that some of his explanatory notes are unauthorized and erroneous; as, for instance, with respect to the laws of inheritance; on which subject his version of the text also is faulty. When necessary, I have distinguished the verses by numbers. In doing this I had originally adopted the divisions made by Marracci, but have since made the numbers to agree with those in the late edition of the Arabic text by Fluegel, which, from its superior accuracy, is likely to supersede the former editions.
97. Kur-án, ch. iii., vv. 40-42.
98. Kur-án, ch. iv., v. 169.
99. The title of “Seyyidna” (our Lord) is given by the Muslims to prophets and other venerated persons.
100. Kur-án, ch. iv., v. 156.
101. The Muslim seldom mentions the name of the Prophet without adding, “Salla-lláhu ’aleyhi wa-sellem”; i.e., “God favour and preserve him!”
102. In the first edition of this work, I here mentioned the Devil as distinct from the genii; but I have since found that the majority of the most esteemed Arab authors are of the contrary opinion. Theirs is also the general opinion of the modern Arabs.—The angelic nature is considered as inferior to the human (because the angels were commanded to prostrate themselves before Adam), and still more so is the nature of genii.
103. Like those of the gazelle: this meaning of their common appellation (which is mentioned afterwards) is, however, disputed.disputed.
104. The title of martyr is given to the unpaid soldier killed in a war for the defence of the faith, to a person who innocently meets with his death from the hand of another, to a victim of the plague (if he has not fled from the disease) or of dysentery, to a person who is drowned, and to one who is killed by the fall of any building.
105. See Sale’s Preliminary Discourse to his Translation of the Kur-án, sect. iv.
106. A Muslim of some learning professed to me that he considered the description of Paradise given in the Kur-án to be, in a great measure, figurative: “like those,” said he, “in the book of the Revelation of St. John;” and he assured me that many learned Muslims were of the same opinion.
107. The corpse is always deposited in a vault, and not placed in a coffin, but merely wrapped in winding-sheets or clothes.
108. Alluded to in the first chapter.
109. For an account of these private ablutions, and the occasions which require their performance, the reader may consult Reland, De Rel. Moh., pp. 80-83, ed. 1717.
110. All persons do not use exactly the same words on this occasion, nor during the performance of the wudoó; and most persons use no words during the performance.
111. He should also use a tooth-stick (miswák) to clean his teeth; but few do so.
112. It is believed that the good man will rise to judgment with his face white; and the bad, with his face black. Hence a man’s face is said to be white or black according as he is in good or bad repute; and “may God blacken thy face!” is a common imprecation.
113. To every man is appropriated a book, in which all the actions of his life are written. The just man, it is said, will receive his book in his right hand; but the wicked, in his left, which will be tied behind his back; his right hand being tied up to his neck.
114. Here, again, I must beg to refer the reader (if he desires such information) to Reland’s account of the ghusl, and the occasions which require its performance.—De Rel. Moh., pp. 66-77, ed. 1717.
115. Seggádehs, of the kind here described, are now sold in London, under the name of Persian carpets or Persian rugs.
116. I have called this the first, because the Mohammadan day commences from sunset; but the morning prayer is often termed the first; the prayer of noon, the second; and so on.
117. The ’eshë of the Sháfe’ees, Málikees, and Hambel′ees, is when the red gleam (“esh-shafak el-ahmar”) after sunset has disappeared; and that of the Hanafees, when both the red and the white gleam have disappeared.
118. Generally on the first faint appearance of light in the east. The Hanafees mostly perform the morning-prayer a little later, when the yellow gleam (“el-isfirár”) appears: this they deem the most proper time, but they may pray earlier.
119. The ’asr, according to the Sháfe’ees, Málikees, and Hambel’ees, is when the shade of an object, cast by the sun, is equal to the length of that object, added to the length of the shade which the same object casts at noon; and, according to the Hanafees, when the shadow is equal to twice the length of the object added to the length of its mid-day shadow.
120. Here is added, in the morning call, “Prayer is better than sleep!” (twice.)
121. A common air, to which the adán is chanted in Cairo, will be given in the chapter on Egyptian music.
122. They are few who do so.
123. Kur-án, ch. xcviii., v. 4.
124. Same, ch. ix., v. 32, and ch. lxi., v. 8.
125. This exclamation (“Yá rabb!”) is made in a very loud tone.
126. The word “ebed” is here used adverbially, signifying “for ever.”
127. These words, “The perfection of Him who spake,” etc. (“subhána men kellema,” etc.), are pronounced in a very high and loud tone.