It should be recorded that a considerable local trade is carried on in the country in the sale of a flour-like substance obtained from the interior of the pods of Parkia filicoidea. This is made up with the seeds of the plant into an edible paste, locally termed “Dawadawa.”

EXPORTS.—Excluding cocoa, which is treated separately in its place, the following table shows the progress of the export trade between 1910 and 1919:—

NIGERIA-SOUTHERN PROVINCES

An inferior quality is that made at Oshogbo and north of Ibadan generally. The fruits, after having been boiled for about three hours, have the fibrous pulp sufficiently loosened, so that the whole is easily separated from the nuts by pounding in a wooden mortar. The fibrous mass thus obtained is then put into a pit, which is filled to a depth of about eighteen inches with cold water, and the oil is expressed by women and young girls, who tread it out with their feet. After leaving the water undisturbed for a short time, the oil rises to the surface, from which it is skimmed, or it may be precipitated, by the removal of a plug placed in the side of the pit, into a vessel placed to receive it. The treading process is repeated until most of the oil is extracted. The oil is then separated from the water which it contains by boiling. The fibrous pulp is next removed, strained in baskets, and is placed upon rocks to dry in the sun, after which it is pressed into large balls, which are sold in the local markets at 1d. each. Much of this finds its way to Lagos Town, where it is sold for fuel at the rate of 8d. for 8½ lb. In this connection it may be mentioned that there appears to be no foundation for the statement which has been made to the effect that this residual pulp is exported in large quantities from Lagos for the further extraction of oil by chemical means in Europe. An illustration is given showing a girl straining fibrous pulp in an oil pit at Oshogbo (Fig. 22).

In the Central and Eastern Provinces “hard” oil is the commercial name applied to the kind which is generally made. At Onitsha the natives may be seen bringing in this oil, which is of such a consistency that even at an atmospheric temperature of 90° it remains in a solid wax-like condition. The earthen vessels in which such oil is conveyed to the factories, when accidentally dropped and broken, do not necessarily occasion the loss of any oil. The thickened condition is entirely due to the method of preparation, during which important chemical changes occur, which appear to be detrimental to the oil for some of its most important uses, especially that of soap manufacture, while rendering it suitable for employment for making candles. The important difference in the preparation of this oil lies in the fact that instead of the fresh fruits being used, the pericarp is separated from the nuts by means of partial decomposition, induced by burying the fruits in the ground for a period varying from three weeks to two months. The semi-decomposed pericarp is then easily removed by pounding or treading out in a canoe-shaped receptacle, after which the fibrous mass is boiled, and the liquid oil is skimmed and allowed to set in earthen jars, in which it is carried for sale to the factories.

The extraction of kernels from the nuts is one of the usual occupations of the women and children of a village, when not assisting in the preparation of oil. The nuts are spread in the sun for about a week or more until a shrinkage of the kernel occurs, which renders the nut-shell capable of being easily cracked without damage to the interior. It is said that in the Jebu district, to the north-east of Lagos, the local price paid for kernels ranges from 4d. to 4½d. for a filled tin bowl having the diameter of nine inches.

The primitive method of extracting kernels, by means of cracking the nut-shell between stones and picking out the contents, has not yet given way to the employment of the various machines which have been introduced from time to time to supersede it.

A black oil is extracted at Oshogbo by roasting the kernels in an earthen pot until black, and stirring meanwhile until the whole mass becomes covered with exuded oil. A small quantity of cold water is then sprinkled into the pot after removing it from the fire, and the contents are pounded in a mortar until an oily meal is produced. This is boiled, and, when the mixture is cool, the oil is skimmed from the surface of the water which has been added for the boiling. This oil is apparently only used locally.

The existing native social system, under which the male head of a family receives almost exclusive consideration, is opposed to native co-operation in any mechanical process, whereby a relief from labour of his numerous dependants—wives, children, and aged or infirm relatives—would be incurred at the expense of his enhanced personal labour; he being the carrier and disposer of the produce at the market. By the conveyance and sale of nuts instead of kernels, a much smaller return in value would be obtained for the same weight of material, i.e. a similar amount of personal energy. The dependants, incapable of assisting in transporting, would remain idle, unless some similar work could be found for them. Up to a short distance from the delivery point (which would determine itself) the nuts instead of the kernels would be brought in for sale, and, limited by the capabilities of the available palm-tree climbers, the family dependants would be able to prepare larger quantities of pericarp oil; but the increased accumulation of kernels would further decrease the radius from the selling centre at which the carriers would be able to work.

If the entire fruit were to be bought up for mechanical extraction of pericarp oil as well as kernels, the carrying labour would be still further enhanced, and the work of the oil-manufacturing communities would resolve itself into three operations—viz. climbing trees, chopping out fruit, and transporting—which would mean the exclusion from work of all but the strong adults, or the reduction of workers by 30 to 50 per cent. perhaps. The number of skilled palm-tree climbers is said to be decreasing in many districts, and, owing to the sparsity of the population in some localities, a very large proportion of the annual yield of fruit remains unharvested.

The investigation of the several varieties of the oil palm of the country is in progress at the Imperial Institute, and the characters of the most important are now well known, and may be compared here with the varieties from the Gold Coast, Sierra Leone, Gambia, and Northern Nigeria. The typical form, which, although subject to some variation, possesses certain marked characteristics, may be said to fall under the following general description:

Fruiting heads generally large. Fruit large, orange to scarlet in colour, with a variable amount of purplish black suffusion at the apex, which may extend over more than half of the fruit or may be altogether absent. Pericarp thin, kernel large with a thick shell. Names: “Ope yope” or “Ope pankora” (Yoruba), “Ok-poruk-pu” (Ibo), “Udin” (Beni), “Ak-porro-jub” (Efik), “Irök-Eyop” (Ibibio), “Abe pa” and perhaps “Abe dam” (Fanti, Gold Coast), “Tug bore” (Mendi, Sierra Leone), “Tabel-tiloli” (Timani, Sierra Leone), “Tengo” (Mandingo, Gambia), “Kabe-kalako” (Jolah, Gambia), “Neul” (Joloff, Gambia), “Qua-qua” (Haussa, N. Nigeria), “Yi-ku-niche” (Nupe, N. Nigeria). Only the typical form has as yet been observed in Sierra Leone, Gambia, and Northern Nigeria.

The other particularly important variety is that commonly referred to as the “soft-shelled” or “thin-shelled” palm fruit, which has been recorded from many localities in West Africa. The following description will include the forms contained in this group:

Fruiting heads often large. Fruits large or small, generally the latter, dark coloured. Pericarp thick, kernel rather small, with a thin shell. Names: “Ope-Arunfo” (Yoruba), “Au-su-ku” (Ibo), “Ivioronmila” (Beni), “Asoge-e-jub” (Efik), “Eduege Eyop” (Ibibio), “Abe-bobe” (Fanti, Gold Coast).

The third kind is that frequently called the “Fetish” or “King” palm nut. It is rare wherever it occurs, and is scarcely worth consideration from an economic standpoint. The tree which bears this fruit has been described under the distinct specific name of Elæis Thompsoni, Chevalier.

Fruiting heads generally small. Fruits medium-sized, red with black markings occasionally present. Pericarp moderately thick, kernel and shell medium. The nuts, which possess four eyes, are not used in the manufacture of commercial oil, but are employed in connection with the worship of the deity Ifa (Dennett). Names: “Ope Ifa” (Yoruba), “Ojuku” (Ibo), “Oged-udin” (Beni), “Affia-ko-jub” (Efik), “Efiako-Eyop” (Ibibio), “Abe-ohene” (Fanti, Gold Coast).

The above are the three most marked forms of oil palm recognisable, although other varieties are given special names by natives in different parts of the country, distinctions being frequently made between the fruit from trees which assume a tall growth and those which remain stunted. (Cf. also Bull. Imp. Inst., 1909, p. 362; and 1920, p. 223.)

As far as investigations have progressed, the advantage with regard to yield of oil as well as quality is maintained by the thin-shelled variety, the greater proportion of pericarp enabling a larger amount of pericarp oil to be expressed, while the thin kernel-covering facilitates the extraction of the kernel. Before being able to definitely state that this variety is of the greatest economic value, it is necessary that a comparison of the weight of the annual crops from all varieties should be made.

The advisability of planting any particular variety of oil palm would in the first place depend on the results obtained from the complete investigation of all; but at the present time such a project on a large scale is not likely to be practicable, as it is generally acknowledged that only a comparatively small proportion of the existing wild trees are at present utilised.

Experiments in the Kamerun, with different varieties of oil palms, seemed to indicate that the thin-shelled character was not a fixed one. In 1910 a forest officer in Nigeria was detailed to study the distribution, cultivation and preparation of the oil, of the most appreciated varieties, and a quantity of nuts of the soft-shelled “Lisombe” kind from the Kamerun were distributed for planting among the natives of the Eastern Province.

The export figures of this trade from 1910 to 1918 are tabulated below. Up to the year 1914, those of Northern were separated from those of Southern Nigeria. In this account, subsequent to that year, the two sets of figures have been taken together. A quantity of kernels is imported from Dahomey for re-export, amounting in 1910 to 21,120 tons. The figures indicate that the increase has been irregular, and, during the last few years, has been influenced by the war. In 1919 here, as in the other W. African Colonies, a differential export tax of £2 per ton was imposed, with respect to palm kernels.

It is interesting to compare the amount of oil produced in proportion to kernels collected, there being a marked difference in this respect between the output of the Western Province (Lagos) and the Central and Eastern Provinces. A previous series of thirteen years’ exports from the former showed an average of 60·9 gallons of oil to the ton of kernels; while for the latter a twelve-year period at the same time gave 219·6 gallons of oil to the ton of kernels. The mean for the whole was 140·25 gallons at that time, but during the last seven years it has fallen to 125·7 gallons. In 1912 the first shipments of kernel oil and cake were made from factories established under European control at Opobo and Lagos, the amounts exported being 500 tons of oil and 635 tons of cake. In the following year the value of both products turned out by these factories is given as £161,000, and in 1914 as £72,000, when, without any assigned reason, both factories were closed down.

Articles on the African palm-oil industry in the Southern Provinces of Nigeria will be found in Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, 1909, 1911, 1912, 1913, 1914, 1915, 1919.

An interesting article appears in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. xviii., No. 2 (1920), entitled “The Cultivation of the African Oil Palm, with special reference to the East Indies.” From this it appears that the tree thrives and yields very satisfactorily, especially in Sumatra; the oil content of the fruit and kernels being both high. Attention is drawn in this article to the extension of the use of palm oil in Europe as an edible fat, in addition to its present uses.

Other Oil Seeds.—Excluding the shea nut tree, which will be referred to later on, three trees have been considered of sufficient importance for their seeds to be shipped to Europe in order that their value may be determined. These are Pentaclethra macrophylla (Cutlass bean), Irvingia Barteri (African mango), and Lophira alata. Although the trials proved that the oils of all might be valuable for the manufacture of soap and candles, none of the trees occur in sufficient profusion to permit a large export trade in the seeds being established. (See Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. v. [1907], pp. 10-14, and vol. vi. [1908], pp. 243, 354-80.)

RUBBER.—Following the progress made by the Forestry Department in re-establishing the indigenous rubber tree (Funtumia elastica) in places from which it had almost disappeared, an excellent system of communal plantations was established. This system, which has been largely adopted by the chiefs, is one to encourage the village inhabitants to re-establish rubber trees in their proximity; the planting and tapping and preparation of the rubber being under the direction of the Government officers. The resulting rubber is marketed by the Government, who retain one-third of the sale price to cover the cost of supervision, etc.; the remaining two-thirds being paid to the village community. In this manner a large number of communal plantations have now been established. In 1911 over 400 new plantations of this kind were made; about 100,000 Funtumia plants being put in. At the same time 129,000 Para rubber seeds and some 4,000 seedlings were distributed under the same scheme, while Ceara plantations were made in the drier parts of the country. Licences to collect wild rubber were simultaneously made compulsory.

The rubber produced on the Government plantation at Mamu Forest, by the boiling method, proved very satisfactory. In 1910 such rubber was sold at 6s. 6d. per lb., being only 6d. less than the best Para fetched at the same time. Three hundred communal plantations yielded rubber in 1911 against eighty-four in the previous year, the average yield per tree being 1·59 oz. against 1·406 oz. In 1912 communal rubber amounted to 3,031 lbs., which sold at about 3s. 4d. per lb.; and in the same year Government plantation rubber was 3,501 lbs., which realised 3s. 10d. per lb.

The next rubber plant of importance is the vine, Landolphia owariensis, which is somewhat variable in the form of growth. The latex at certain seasons coagulates almost instantaneously, but at other times it runs freely, and can be collected for coagulation by heat, the admixture of acid, alkali or alcohol, or by spontaneous exposure. The scrap rubber, which is collected from that coagulated upon the stem, is made into balls, and comes into the market under the name of “first Niggers,” and commands a high price.

The native has discovered that a larger amount of rubber can be obtained at one time if the roots and stems are cut and pounded up. The result is a product known as “root rubber,” the collection of which can be justified only where the plant, from which it is obtained, develops an extensive rhizome or subterranean growth, capable of being partially removed without killing the plant. Such vines, although found in some other parts of Africa, do not occur in Southern Nigeria, and the collection of so-called “root rubber” from L. owariensis only leads to the complete destruction of the plant, and should be discouraged. The small yield of latex from this species after many years of growth, and the difficulties in connection with the collection of the rubber, render its cultivation in plantations unprofitable, although planting has been attempted in the French and German Colonies.

Clitandra elastica is another vine said to yield a copious supply of latex, capable of being coagulated by means of heating after dilution with water. In appearance the vine is somewhat similar to L. owariensis, but does not appear to be common. The rubber produced from this species is reported to be of excellent quality.

Carpodinus hirsutus, a common vine in the dry zone and on the Niger river banks, furnishes a plentiful supply of latex of inferior quality, and is made into “root” and “paste” rubber by boiling; the latter being a sticky product of the consistency of birdlime, and only saleable in Europe at a low price.

The latices of Landolphia Thompsonii and L. senegalensis are used similarly. Both species are nearly allied to L. florida, which is prepared elsewhere.

A number of latex-yielding plants are employed in the adulteration of good rubber, among which the following may be mentioned as the commonest: Funtumia africana, Conopharyngia sp., Alstonia congoensis, and Holarrhena Wulfsburgii. The admixture of these is usually detected by the stickiness which they impart to good rubber.

The introduction of licences for permission to collect wild rubber and that of the communal plantation system, previously referred to, have rendered the position more secure than previously, and insured the preservation of the wild plants which were threatened with extinction. This has moreover been effected in the most economical manner.

The results of the tappings on the Para rubber plantations in different parts of the country are of interest. In 1911 at Ebute Metta, trees eighteen years old yielded 3 lbs. 5½ oz. per tree; at Calabar six year old trees gave an average of 6 oz. per tree; while at Sapele in the same year, five year old trees yielded from 14 oz. to 1 lb. 6½ oz. per tree. In the following year the same trees at Ebute Metta gave 7 lbs. 4¾ oz., while those at Sapele yielded from 1 lb. 4¾ oz. to 1 lb. 11¾ oz. In 1915 from two Para rubber estates at Sapele 94,413 lbs. of dry rubber was harvested. (Cf. Bull. Imp. Inst., 1910, 1912, 1913, 1918.)

Export of Rubber.—The Commercial Intelligence Officer of Southern Nigeria, in his report on the trade of the country for 1907, gives a table showing the rubber exported from Southern Nigerian ports from 1900 to 1907; but as these figures include large quantities of the product from Northern Nigeria, shipped through Southern Nigerian ports, they do not represent the output from the latter country alone. Until 1907 apparently no record of the Northern Nigerian rubber exported was kept, but in the year mentioned 1,187,588 lbs., valued at £91,074, were recorded as having passed the customs post of Northern Nigeria at Ida, on the Niger. The amounts, in tons, exported from the Southern Provinces alone were: 1907, 690; 1908, 545; 1909, 620; and from the whole of Nigeria from that time: 1910, 1,180; 1911, 966; 1912, 705; 1913, 510; 1914, no figures; 1915, 248; 1916, 396; 1917, 392; 1918, 157; 1919, 398. The rubber production of the country is to some extent controlled by the market price, which is at present very low (1921).

COPAL.—Some quantity of a kind of copal resin is collected from Cyanothyrsus oblongus (syn. C. ogea), and is exported under the name of “Ogea gum.” The quality appears to be similar to that obtained from the Gold Coast Cyanothyrsus sp., and which is sold under the name of “Accra copal.” Both are obtained in a fresh and a fossil state. Owing to the recent fall in the price of ogea gum, the collection of it has diminished, but there are said to be large quantities available which would be collected as soon as a better demand occurred. (See articles on “Copal Resins from British West Africa,” Bull. Imp. Inst., 1908, p. 245; and 1914, p. 218.)

COCOA.—The good fortune which has recently attended the planters in West Africa, owing to a sudden demand for their cocoa, has encouraged them, especially to the north and north-east of Lagos, to make more extensive plantations. The climatic conditions in the Western Province, however, are not favourable, and the repeated failures of trees, due to the exhausting effect of the long dry seasons, give the plantations an irregular appearance. The trees in the plantations made at Agege, where many well-to-do planters have made farms, are stunted, and planted in too close proximity, mostly without permanent shade trees. In some instances the trees showed disease from the sapping of the bark juices occasioned by a Capsid, the species of which is as yet undetermined. The chief cause of their sterility and death seems, however, to be the unfavourable climatic conditions. In the direction of the Abeokuta-Ibadan boundary, better planting seems to have been done and permanent shade trees preserved.

It is said that the Agege planters are dissatisfied with the prices they obtain for their cocoa, which they maintain is properly fermented and of better quality than that of their neighbours. An association of the local planters was recently formed to ship their own produce direct to the European markets. The Agege cocoa generally, however, does not appear to be more carefully prepared or of better quality than the other local kinds. Fermentation is certainly practised in many places, and is becoming popular throughout the Western Province, owing to the discovery that the fermented pulp juice forms a beverage, which is said to be used as a substitute for palm wine, but the beans are frequently improperly dried.

In the Eastern Province the climatic conditions appear to be more favourable for the plant, and there are now a number of small plantations near Eket, Old Calabar, and Itu. The product is still improperly prepared and usually unfermented, but time and experience will remedy this.

In the Central Province from 1915 some activity in cocoa planting has occurred in the Benin district, but attention there is still mainly devoted to rubber planting.

See also Bull. Imp. Inst., 1914, p. 213; 1915, p. 553; and 1919, p. 289.

The exports of cocoa have been as follows:

COTTON.—Reviewing the work which has been done in inducing the agricultural population of the country to cultivate cotton for export, by far the greatest prominence must be given to the untiring efforts of the British Cotton Growing Association, who are gradually surmounting all the obstacles which retarded their progress. The condition of the industry, especially in the Western Province, is extremely favourable, and shows signs of further development.

In every Yoruba market sales of cotton are now conducted as a part of the regular transactions of the day, and cotton from distant villages filters through from market to market, increasing in value as it approaches a ginnery, where the full price for it may be ultimately claimed by the trader who has collected it.

On account of this system of passing from one market to another, chiefly in the form of barter for other produce, it becomes nearly impossible to accurately determine the origin of the supplies brought to the ginneries; and, by reference to the records kept, very large quantities of cotton often appear as having been sent from towns which are little more than accumulating centres, and in the vicinity of which there is little or no cotton grown.

Experience in the plantation of cotton under European control has shown that without combining the work of a general trader, farmer, and ginner with that of grower, such an attempt is not likely to prove remunerative. The British Cotton Growing Association have abandoned development upon these lines, directing their attention solely towards buying, ginning and inducing the native farmers to cultivate the plant in their ordinary field rotations. Such plantations as still exist are now under the direct control of the Government and are maintained for the purpose of experimental work and for the propagation of improved types.

The local varieties of cotton may be roughly classed under five heads, which are easily recognisable by the characters of the seed and lint. These are:

1. Black, clean-seeded with a brown tuft or brown woolly and a brick-red lint.—“Eponkon.”

2. Black, clean-seeded, with a creamy white lint.—Common Western Province kind; rarer in the Central Province (Ishan).

3. Black, adhering seeds, “kidney” kind, lint creamy.—Common Central Province.

4. White or brownish woolly seeded, lint creamy.—Meko and Agbede kinds.

5. Green woolly seeded, lint creamy.—Rather uncommon except at Agege.

The characters of the above classes do not appear to be sufficiently constant to render it easy to give each class a specific position, although some of them are doubtless separable. All native forms of plant are constantly of greater stature than American, and in this particular resemble Egyptian kinds.

The red-linted form known as “Eponkon” is identical with the “Dhoole” of Sierra Leone, and, although prolific, yields a cotton which is of little value for export. The other four kinds are those from which the Southern Nigerian output of exported cotton is almost wholly obtained, and the price realised varies from ½d. under to 1d. or more over Middling American. The finest cottons are those grown at Agege and Meko; the former being supposed to be a hybrid with an American variety, and the latter a constant local variety. Some of the shipments, from Illushi, of cotton grown near Agbede appear to have been of equally desirable quality.

A large number of specimens of cotton have been examined at the Imperial Institute, and the length of fibre is generally found to be over one inch in average, but the colour is yellowish, and there is less lustre than is found in the American kinds. Although the price obtained is often somewhat higher than that of the standard Middling American grade, Manchester spinners do not regard West African cotton as quite suitable for their ordinary requirements, and it appears that the higher prices have only been paid for small quantities which were capable of being used for special purposes.

For the reason mentioned, efforts have been made to replace the indigenous cottons by American kinds, or to hybridise the two, but the results have not yet been successful, the tendency being to produce an irregular mixed lint, which is commercially inferior. American and Egyptian cottons seem to be less capable of withstanding the attacks of the local insect pests, and a large proportion of the seed is rendered sterile by the cotton seed bug. Grown experimentally on a small scale at Olokemeji, the following results were obtained from several exotic and local cottons (American Middling at 6·64d. per lb.):—

Of the above Nos. 1, 2, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 16, 17, 18, and 19 are American varieties, and were grown from seed supplied by the British Cotton Growing Association; Nos. 4, 5, 6, 13 and 15 are Egyptian; No. 9 is a Northern Nigerian variety from North Ilorin, and Nos. 3 and 7 appear to be local kinds. These cottons are referred to in Professor Dunstan’s Report (1907), “British Cotton Cultivation.”

In addition to the susceptibility of the American varieties to the attacks of the local insect pests, the seed produced from plants grown in the country is often sterile. In the districts in the vicinity of the British Cotton Growing Association’s ginneries American and native cottons are often seen growing in the same field, but as the time of reaching maturity differs in the various forms, and the cotton is not easily kept separate in the native methods of harvesting, a mixed crop is obtained. Experimenting at the Moor Plantation at Ibadan, the British Cotton Growing Association have obtained occasionally satisfactory results from the American plots, as appeared to be the case in the 1908-9 season, when an American “Upland” variety is said to have yielded 800 lbs. of seed cotton per acre. In the previous year an indigenous variety called “Meko” is recorded as having produced over 900 lbs. to the acre. These results are largely dependent upon the season and the time of sowing.

Artificial pollination of the female flowers of the local forms with pollen taken from American kinds has not yet succeeded in producing a permanent hybrid, although the result in the first generation has frequently shown great promise. There is no doubt that the establishment of a hybrid which would carry the lint of the best American kind and retain the hardiness and blight-resisting powers of the indigenous forms would be very desirable, but such a type could only be evolved after careful experiment and selection for a prolonged period. Such work may probably be undertaken by the Agricultural Department in the future. Until this can be scientifically taken up, the improvement of the existing forms by a more gradual means should be attempted, namely by a careful selection of seed and elimination of undesirable forms of plants in the field.

Where cotton is planted by natives, the cultivation is usually carefully carried out. Planting takes place in June, July, or August, and the crop is harvested from January until April. For the most part cotton is grown by the Yorubas as a separate crop, although occasionally it may be found in conjunction with maize. No manuring is carried on, but the crops are generally fair, except in the proximity of the Niger, for an unexplained reason. No estimate can be made of the yield per acre from native cotton fields, but from 60 to 80 bolls are frequently found upon a single plant.

Before passing to other matters in connection with the condition of the cotton plant in the country, and the appliances in use for the preparation of the lint for export, it seems advisable to emphasise the main points which require attention in the field. 1. Improvement of the indigenous forms, by the careful selection of seed at the ginneries, for distribution, and the subsequent elimination of undesirable types of plant in the field. 2. Demonstration to the native farmer of a useful method of combination of cotton with the existing field crops, and especially the advantage of introducing leguminous crops into the rotation with cotton. 3. Special efforts to be made in those countries outside the oil palm districts, where the natives have little else capable of being produced for barter for imported material. Alter a series of experimental trials it was decided in 1915 to encourage the planting of Georgia cotton in the Western Province. In the year mentioned this American variety had yielded 800 lbs. of seed cotton per acre at Ibadan.

A number of insect pests of a more or less serious nature attack the plant at different periods of growth. The American boll-worm (Chloridea obsoleta) does some damage annually in the Central Province (Ugboha, Agbede and Ishan); Earias insulana, F., the Egyptian boll-worm; E. imbricata, an allied species, and Diparopsis castanea Hamp., the Sudan boll-worm, are common at Ibadan. The immature boll is often punctured by a scarlet and brown bug, identified as Dysdercus superstitiosus, Fabr., which enters the opened bolls also, and exudes a yellowish liquid, which stains the lint. The opened boll is also infested with three species of cotton-seed bugs—Oxycarenus hyalinipennis, O. gossipinus, and O. Dudgeoni—which do a large amount of damage in sapping the juices from the seed and rendering it unproductive. The most satisfactory method of dispersing this insect is to place the seed-cotton in a hot sun for several hours. Both Oxycarenus and Dysdercus may be trapped by placing piles of seed in the field at intervals, and treating them with kerosene when the insects have collected on them. A small caterpillar belonging to the family Gelechiadæ[4] is often found in the boll feeding on the seed, and a leaf-blistering blight, probably Chlorita flavescens, appears to be common in several places. A malady, chiefly on stems of exotic cottons, and known as “black-arm” in Georgia, U.S.A., is seen occasionally. The affection is not attributed to any animal or vegetable parasite.

The ginneries erected by the British Cotton Growing Association are probably some of the best equipped in the world. The Marlborough Ginnery at Ibadan (Fig. 23) has at present the largest output, although the Jones Ginnery at Oshogbo is larger, and is expected to receive a greater quantity of cotton for treatment in the future. The third, which is working in the Western Province, is the Churchill Ginnery at Lafenwa, near Abeokuta. Smaller ginneries have been erected at Eruwa Road, Iwo, Oyo, and Agege in the Western Province, but are at present unused. In the Central Province the Illushi Ginnery on the Niger is capable of treating all the cotton of the adjoining districts. A photograph of cotton bales at Ibadan is reproduced (Fig. 23).

At Ibadan an oil mill has been erected in connection with the Marlborough Ginnery, and the expression of oil from the seed is regularly carried on. The seed cake which is turned out is found to be of rather inferior quality for European consumption, as the excess of woolly seed renders it undesirable for cattle food. A very economical local use for this cake has recently been discovered—namely the employment of it to generate gas to drive the machinery of the ginnery. It has been found that 6 cwt. of cotton-seed cake is sufficient to generate gas to drive the 30 h.p. oil-mill engine for nine and a half hours. This discovery suggests the possibility of doing without coal entirely at the ginneries, which would mean a very large saving in the cost of production of cotton.

The cotton ginned by the British Cotton Growing Association is baled for the most part in rectangular oblong form, each bale weighing approximately 400 lbs. The production of the country has shown a rapid increase, especially in the earlier years, though more recently one of the seasons proved a short one owing to adverse climatic conditions.

The exports of cotton-seed in 1912 and 1913 reached 4,058 tons and 5,887 tons respectively. (“Cotton Varieties,” cf. Bull. Imp. Inst., vol. xv. [1917]). Much is expected from this new development.

MAIZE.—In the last few years the cultivation of a short-season “white” maize has been taken up, especially among the Yorubas, in the Western Province, although the variety is also found in the fields farther to the east. (See Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. vii. [1909], pp. 145-8.)

A difficulty has arisen in connection with the preparation of the crop for shipment; it having been found that very large quantities arrive in Europe in a weevilly condition. Various methods have been suggested to remedy this, including disinfection with carbon bisulphide, but the use of this last is dangerous.

A restriction with regard to the time of buying the July—August crop is recommended for adoption by the merchants, in order to prevent immature, insufficiently dried corn being shipped. It is insisted, however, in some quarters, that, until the holds of ships are systematically cleaned out before loading, no amount of precaution on shore will prevent shipments becoming weevilled during the voyage. (See article on “The Cultivation and Marketing of Maize” in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. vi. [1908], pp. 261-77.)

Experiments were carried out in 1911, 1912 and 1913 to determine the most profitable time for sowing maize. The results were, however, conflicting, and no definite recommendation could be made owing to the irregularity of rainfall.

CASSAVA.—Among the more important field crops, cassava has to be reckoned. Two well-marked forms occur, which are readily recognised by the different characters of their leaves, one having the leaflets digitate and pointed, and the other digitate and spathulate, with the central leaflet shortened. Cassava forms an important food in many parts of the country, and is widely cultivated, especially in the Western Province. No tapioca is prepared from the root in Southern Nigeria, such as is the case in the West Indies and elsewhere.

YAMS.—In many parts of the country, more especially in the Central and Eastern Provinces, the various forms of yam (Dioscorea) are extensively cultivated alone or with maize, but the presence of five or six other crops growing upon the heightened yam mounds is not uncommon, in the Cross River districts particularly. From the latter locality quantities of yams are sent by river canoes to the large ports in the vicinity of which cultivated land is often scarce.

The Koko yam (Colocasia antiquorum) is also common in the wet zone.

GROUNDNUTS.—The cultivation of groundnuts (Arachis hypogea), upon a more extensive scale than at present, is to be recommended, as there are too few leguminous crops grown in the local rotation. The colour of most of the Southern Nigerian nuts is probably an obstacle to their ready sale in Europe; the shell being usually a dirty greyish instead of a light straw colour. The kernels are, however, satisfactory. It would, perhaps, therefore be advantageous to ship decorticated nuts, as is done in the Northern Provinces. Although new seed and instructors have been brought recently from the Gambia, very little more is grown than formerly.

The variety seen in the Western Province is a larger one than that of the Gambia, and has generally two kernels. The market price for groundnuts at Lapita near Oyo was 200 for 1d., which will indicate the scarcity of the product.

SHEA NUTS AND BUTTER.—The export trade in shea nuts (Butyrospermum Parkii) was expected to develop with the extension of the railway through Ibadan and Ilorin to the Northern Provinces, but the exported product still has its main source from localities north of the Niger. The demand does not seem sufficient to induce expansion to a great extent (Bull. Imp. Inst., vol. vi. [1908]).

The butter or fat is much appreciated in the country for culinary purposes, and has been found of value in Europe for soap and candle-making, as well as for the manufacture of vegetable butter.

KOLA.—Two species of kola (K. acuminata and K. vera) are cultivated, the latter being the indigenous Gold Coast form, the fruit of which is said to be especially valued in the Haussa countries to the north. The local native names are, respectively, “Obi abatta” and “Obi gbanja.” In general appearance the trees are similar, except that the former has narrower and smaller leaves. The “gbanja” form of nut is generally pink and divisible into from two to three parts (cotyledons), whereas the “abatta” form may vary in colour from deep crimson to white and be separable into from three to five parts. The price paid for kolas in Lagos is said to vary from 1s. 3d. to 5s. per hundred.

Although a considerable number of trees have been planted and are bearing fruit in the Western Province, the demand for kolas for native consumption is so great that there is a large import trade from the Gold Coast.

The kola nut is chewed in much the same manner as the betel nut in the East. It is greatly appreciated for its sustaining qualities, and forms a token of friendship exchanged among high-grade natives, as a preliminary to an important discussion of any kind.

FIBRE.—Experiments have been made at the Olokemeji Botanic Station with indigenous fibres, and a small factory has been erected at Ilaro, where a machine capable of extracting fibre is said to have been instituted. The reports upon some of the local Hibiscus fibres have been satisfactory. These are capable of utilisation as jute substitutes, and it may be possible to grow them in the crop rotation of the country at some future time for the purpose of export. (See Selected Reports from the Imperial Institute, No. 1 “Fibres,” pp. 38, 52, 83, 89, and 114.)

Piassava (Raphia vinifera) fibre is prepared and shipped, especially from Uwet in the Eastern Province, the export amounting to 319 tons in 1910.

LEATHER.—A small trade in leather is done among the Yorubas, and tanners may be met with chiefly in the north of the Western Province. The process employed in the preparation of the goat and sheep skins used is similar to that of Northern Nigeria. (See Report on “Leather from Lagos,” Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. iv. [1906], p. 366, and articles on “Native Leather of West Africa,” Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. vi. [1908], pp. 175-81 and vol. viii. [1910], pp. 402.)

TOBACCO.—Tobacco is produced near Ibadan, and large quantities are sold in the King’s market of that town. It is probable that the curing of the leaf is done completely in the sun, as the prepared material is of a rather light colour and has a mild flavour. The leaves are apparently rather mixed, and old or immature examples are frequently included in the same grade.

Experiments will be taken in hand with a view to the improvement of the quality, but at present the local demand is so great that there is little prospect of an export trade becoming established. Recent work in Nyasa-land has shown that good pipe smoking tobacco, suitable for consumption in England, can be produced in Africa.

SILK.—The preparation of a silk yarn, carded and spun from the boiled cocoons of wild silkworms, is a common occupation of some of the women of Ibadan. The identity of the insects producing the silk has been determined to be Anaphe infracta and A. venata, both of which form congregated masses of cocoons. The yarn is of a brown colour, and is woven with cotton into a cloth which is called locally “Saṉyaṉ.” It is much valued by the natives on account of its durability. The silkworms show some sign of becoming scarce owing to the utilisation of the pupæ as food. (See Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, 1910, p. 150; 1916, p. 168; and 1920, p. 319.)

COCONUTS.—The preparation of copra is carried on at Badagri, where a large coconut plantation exists. Great alarm was recently caused to the proprietors through the attack of a scale insect (Aspidiotus destructor), which destroyed the leaves of a very large number of trees. The advent of this pest was, however, quickly followed by the vast multiplication of the numbers of a species of large ladybird beetle, which soon checked the spread of the scale. The directions issued by the Forestry Department with regard to the means of destroying the infected leaves also assisted in the extermination of the blight.

MAHOGANY AND EBONY.—Among the valuable exported products from the country, mahogany and ebony must be regarded as occupying an important place. The largest proportion of the timbers exported to Europe and sold under the name of mahogany are obtained in the Central Province, and are cut from trees belonging to the genera Khaya, Pseudocedrela, and Entandrophragma, of the Natural Order Meliaceæ. Mr. Thompson, Conservator of Forests, remarks that a fair number of logs cut from a species of Guarea, of the same Natural Order, have been shipped, and have obtained good prices in Europe.

A red wood, called locally “Iroko” (Chlorophora excelsa), which is in good demand in the country for making furniture, etc., has been shipped to Europe, but at present there is little demand for it. A photograph of another timber tree (Terminalia superba) is given (Fig. 24).

Mahogany cannot be relied upon as a product capable of permanent exportation, as trees are only useful for felling in the vicinity of creeks and rivers, whence the logs may be inexpensively transported to the sea. The rate at which the available trees are becoming worked out is much greater than that at which they can be replaced by nature.

The export values for some recent years are as under:—

The ebony exported from the country is chiefly obtained in the Cross River District of the Eastern Province, but during recent years the trade in it has diminished, and it is said that immature trees are frequently felled. The sources of ebony are two species of trees belonging to the genus Diospyros. The value of ebony exported during the two years 1909 and 1910 is stated to have been £1,298 and £166 respectively.

Several other trees have recently been examined for export value, most of them coming into the mahogany or red-wood class. (See articles on “Timbers from Southern Nigeria,” Bull. Imp. Inst., vol. vi. [1908], p. 144, vol. xviii. [1920], p. 199, and note on next page.)

CATTLE.—The greater part of the moist zone is almost devoid of cattle, partly owing to the prevalence of “tsetse” fly, although mainly, perhaps, to the less advanced condition of the inhabitants. As soon as the intermediate and dry-zone country is entered, small herds are frequently seen. That the presence of tsetse fly is not entirely accountable for the scarcity of cattle in the forested region is shown by the occurrence of the peculiar dwarfed variety with short legs, which is found in Ondo, Ilesha, Ifon, Ishan, and even in the Bassa Province in Northern Nigeria, in all of which districts “tsetse” flies of at least two species are met with. (Glossina palpalis and G. pallidipes.) It is stated by the natives that the dwarf cattle are immune from fly disease, but that introduced animals succumb to it. The appearance of these animals, an illustration of one of which is given, reproduced from a photograph taken at Illara (Fig. 25), is remarkable. The prevailing colours are black and white, black, and more rarely fawn-coloured. There is no dorsal hump, and the forequarters are generally lower than the hind. A second illustration, from a photograph taken at Owo (Fig. 26), gives an idea of the relative size of a full-grown animal compared with that of a boy. Another peculiarity of the above-mentioned districts is that the goats occurring there are similarly short-legged and diminutive; there is also said to be a stunted variety of horse, which is bred for use at Ondo. When the open country is reached, two varieties of cattle are seen, one of the Indian zebu type, with a large dorsal hump, the prevailing colour of which is white, and another with a straight back. The latter kind is seen as far south as Onitsha, on the east bank of the Niger.