Let us study these interesting-looking people more closely and endeavour to find out their characteristic features, and in what respects they differ from ourselves. At the same time, let us in passing ascertain to what degree they resemble us and other peoples, past or present, and what peculiarities they might share with the man-apes or lower forms of the animal kingdom.

What immediately appeals to our critical eye is the strong contrast in the general outline of the figure when we compare it with our own. The round, full contours and shapely exterior of the European are replaced by an angularity and straightness in the aboriginal. The surface-padding or, more correctly, the subcutaneous deposition of fatty tissue, which makes the lines and curves of our bodies so uniform—and the female figure so beautiful—is, to a large extent, the result of long selective culture and of the comforts which civilized life has brought with it. In the case of the aboriginal, however, the forethought of Nature has not allowed the development of such paddings of fat to any considerable amount; they would only tend to impede the agility of the hardy desert roamer. He does not need a thick layer of fat beneath his skin. From an artistic point of view, the leanness of his body is quite becoming to himself. He lives in a country whose climate is hot, and his healthy hunting-life makes him immune from many of the ills to which the city dweller is heir. As a reserve storage of heat and nourishment, therefore, which might be called upon to aid his physiological constitution in times of need, the quantity of superfluous fat can safely be reduced to a minimum. Nature has given enough, but not a measure in excess. Thus, without any indication of unhealthy emaciation, the integumentary accumulation of fat is so scant that parts of the internal anatomy of an aboriginal can readily be deciphered topographically. We can follow the shape of the superficial muscles and of the skeleton, and can palpate the outline of the abdominal organs with comparative ease. Although the muscles are small, they are, nevertheless, strong, firm, and wiry; this is particularly noticeable in the extremities.

It is a curious fact, however, that there is a natural predisposition in the aboriginal to produce fatty tissue once he gives up his active hunting career, like a sportsman out of training, and to develop a perceptible obesity when he lives under conditions which supply him daily with an abundance of nourishment. Under such circumstances, which are of course abnormal and only brought about by European influence, his skin is very apt to accumulate locally masses of fat known medically as lipomas. The Arunndta natives call these tumours “lurra,” and connect their appearance upon their bodies with heavy weight-carrying. It is, indeed, a noteworthy fact that these fatty tumours frequently occur upon the shoulders of aboriginal wood-carriers, who are in the habit of collecting logs of timber for camp or station purposes.

Associated with the angularity and flatness of the bodily form, we notice, when looking upon the figure of an aboriginal in profile, and comparing it with that of an European in a similar position, a straightness of the spine. If, for instance, we were to make an accurate drawing of the spinal curvatures of the two subjects shown in Plate II, we would find that the line representing the spinal column of the aboriginal gin would be very straight in the centre of the back, that is, in the dorsal segment; in fact it would be found that the dorsal curve is very slight. Careful comparisons have been made with frozen corpses of different races and the man-apes, bisected in the mesial plane, and it has been determined that this portion of the spine is flatter in the Australian aboriginal than in any other race of man; and indeed it is flatter than in the chimpanzee. Moreover, a larger number of vertebræ are involved in the dorsal curve of the Australian than there are in the other cases.

In the European subject of our illustration—a young Australian lady—the lumbo-sacral curve, known usually as the ensellure, is unusually prominent.

If now we examine the curvature of that portion of the backbone which constitutes the neck, we shall find it less pronounced in the European but strongly developed in the Australian aboriginal.

But perhaps the greatest difference between the two types is the manner in which the curvature breaks from the lumbar to the sacral portions of the spine. In the European this break is sharp and angular; in the Australian it is very gradual on account of a peculiar oblique position of the last lumbar vertebra. Should we, again, extend our observation to the chimpanzee, we would find that a number of the sacral vertebræ are included in the lumbar curve. Consequently the aboriginal’s spine seems to occupy an interesting position in which the last lumbar vertebra stands almost as a connecting link between the lumbar curve above and the sacral curve immediately below it.

The lumbar curve is greater in the European than in the Australian, but it is decidedly greater in the chimpanzee. The difference in curvature is brought about mainly by the discs of cartilage which exist between the vertebræ, and that is why there is a considerable movement possible in the lumbar portion of the spine of the lower races of man; and it is quite possible that the lumbar curvature alters according to the position adopted by the individual, that is, according to whether he be in a standing or in his favourite squatting posture. In the European the corresponding portion of the spine is much more rigid.

The proportional lengths of cervical, dorsal, and lumbar spinal sections are much the same in both European and Australian, but there are considerable differences in the two spines so far as the proportions of the bony vertebræ and the intervertebral discs of cartilage are concerned, especially in the lumbar region. The lumbar vertebræ of the European are shorter than are those of the Australian, and the latter again are shorter than those of the man-apes. In other words, the lengths of the bones, which build up the lumbar portion of the spinal column, increase (i.e. in proportion to the size of the column as a whole) as one passes from the most highly cultured European through the primitive human stages, like the aboriginal of Australia, to the anthropoid apes, and finally to the lower types of monkeys. At the same time, as the length of the vertebræ increases, a reduction in the thickness of the cartilaginous discs takes place.

There is no doubt this phenomenon depends to some extent upon the acquisition of the upright attitude by man, since the cartilage between the bone acts as an effective shock-absorber—the percussion produced by the impact of the heel against the ground when walking being reduced before it reaches the brain. When the brain-box does not rest immediately above the point of percussion, as for instance in the semi-erect posture of the apes, the dangers of concussion are not so great.

While we are discussing the vertebral column of the Australian aboriginal, we might draw attention to the comparative smallness of the bones composing it. If we were, for instance, to compare the column of an Australian with that of a European of similar height, we would find that the vertebræ of the former are appreciably the smaller—their volumes being almost in the ratio of one to one-and-a-half. This is the more striking since we shall learn later that the Australian aboriginal often is quite as tall in stature as the European. The skeleton of the African negro, on the other hand, is decidedly more massive than that of the European.

The smallness of the bones composing the vertebral column undoubtedly favours the flexibility and agility which characterize the Australians as a hunting people. There are, it is true, certain variations in the structure of the spinal column of the Australian, which seem to contradict this general rule, as, for instance, a slightly stronger development of the vertebræ of the neck and a greater volume of the lumbar vertebral bones in the female. The former of these features is no doubt a primitive characteristic throwing back to the quadrupedal ancestry of the human species, the latter having to do with the processes of birth.

The sacral bone at the lower end of the vertebral column varies slightly in size, but is, generally speaking, much narrower than that of the European or of any other living race. It is principally on this account that the hip-bones of the Australians seem remarkably close together in both sexes.

The fifth lumbar vertebra of the Australian often exhibits certain sacral characters, which remind one of the orang outang; in that anthropoid the fifth lumbar bone is often fused to the os sacrum and in reality becomes the first sacral body. Occasionally this vertebra is asymmetrical, being normal, i.e. lumbar, on the one side and sacral on the other. Its posterior arch is at times wanting, the spines having failed to join, as ordinarily they do, in a median line behind the main body of the bone. The last named feature is, however, not infrequently observed in the skeletons of other races as well.

Another very striking feature, connected with the anatomy of the Australian, is the great length of his arms and legs. This length of extremities is taken in a conjoint sense, and with regard to the height of the individual. The aboriginal is often said to have very much longer arms than legs. This is incorrect. In point of fact, no human type is known, living or fossil, with such a disproportion in the limbs. All types of mankind, individually considered, have arms and legs more or less equal in length; from this original condition the elongated arms, so typical of apes, have evolved, by secondary processes, in all probability through the acquisition of arboreal habits. There is, of course, no doubt that the length of the extremities, both upper and lower, so characteristic of the Australian, together with the relative slenderness of the vertebræ, points to an early evolutional stage, which was common to the ancestral forms of both man and ape. The monkey has brought tree-climbing to such a degree of perfection that it practically lives in the branches. Primitive man, too, has not neglected the art, and, although the normal proportions of his extremities do not directly suggest tree-climbing, there is another development which does, especially in the Australian; and that is his foot.

When we consider the likely transformations which the human foot has undergone from an original hand-like form, resembling that of certain monkeys and lower primates, to its present condition, we shall find that two processes have been at work in the modelling of this important part of man’s anatomy. Firstly, the big toe (originally a thumb) has taken up a position adjacent to that of the next digit (originally an index finger), and, by lying in the same plane with it, has forfeited its power of opposition. Secondly, the big toe has grown appreciably stronger, while the other digits have become smaller and weaker. That the big toe, in its ancient evolution, once stood in the same relation to the other toes as the thumb does to the fingers of the hand, is evident from the arrangement of the blood-vessels and nerves in this part of the foot, corresponding exactly to that of the hand, even though the gap originally existing between the first and second digits has been filled by fleshy tissue.

It is of considerable scientific interest to note that cases are occasionally observed among the Australian tribes in which indications of this ancestral condition are retained. In the Fig. 2 we see the feet of an aboriginal of the Berringin tribe in the north of Australia, whose big toes are remarkable for their shortness when compared with the second.

It is, of course, a well-known fact that the newly-born European baby possesses a wonderful mobility in its feet; and such might also be acquired by people who have lost their arms; but the wearing of boots usually deprives modern nations of this freedom of movement. The aborigines of Australia make frequent use of their toes. A considerable lateral flexibility of the end phalanges enables them to lift small objects off the ground between the big and second toes. Spears are carried by warriors, between the toes of either foot, to conceal the weapons in the grass; and so the enemy is led to believe that the men are unarmed.

When collecting firewood, the gins never stoop to pick up the pieces, but lift them with their toes to the level of their hands. The hands then pile the fuel upon the head and hold it there until sufficient has been collected to carry back to camp.

The power of being able to use the toes in the manner described depends upon the development of a muscle, which arising from the outer side of the fibula and terminating in a long tendon, passes obliquely across the sole of the foot, to insert itself into the metatarsal bone of the great toe. This is the long peroneus muscle, the function of which, in the monkeys at any rate, is to keep the big toe in opposition. In man, moreover, this muscle helps considerably to maintain the arch of the foot. Flatfoot is eminently rare among the aborigines; only one or two cases have come under observation.

When walking, the aboriginal carries his foot so that it points directly ahead of him, and not, as has been written, “with his toes well turned out.” If anything, the sole of the foot is slightly tilted so that the outer border touches the ground a little in advance of the ball.

There is no doubt the outer surface and the ball of the foot play an important role in the art of tree-climbing, as it is practised by the Australians and other primitive peoples. Several methods are in vogue; they will be described later. Suffice it, for the time being, to refer to one: In pursuit of small marsupials, young birds, honey, nuts, fruits, or any other things good to eat, the aboriginal often has occasion to ascend the tall smooth trunks of trees, which harbour such articles in abundance. This is done, often without the aid of any implement, in the following way: The hunter faces the tree and applies the palms of his hands to the opposite side of the butt. As he tightens his hold with his fingers, he springs from the ground and clutches the butt between the soles of his feet. The arches adjust themselves to the convexity of the trunk, whilst the pressure of the outer edges and balls of the feet prevent the limbs from slipping. In this posture, the hunter is virtually hanging by his arms, which are hooked by the hands, and is sitting upon his heels, which are fixed firmly against the tree, as described. Holding his head well back between the shoulder-blades, he suddenly lifts his body upwards with his thighs, while his hands, momentarily relaxing their hold, are pushed upwards also. Now the fingers again tightly clasp the trunk, and the feet are quickly lifted and tucked under the buttocks, to again support the weight of the body as before. The same actions are repeated, time after time, and it is not long before the climber reaches the nearest branches, when progress is simplified. Vide Plate XIX, 2.

This ancient custom of tree-climbing is not peculiar to the Australians, but is adopted by most primitive races. It is very probable, too, that the prehistoric races were to a large extent arboreal, and made use of similar methods of tree-climbing. When considering the evolution of the human foot, therefore, we will have to remember that it has been to some extent influenced by the tree-climbing factor, which, indeed, must be considered in the light of a forerunning stage in the acquisition of the upright attitude by man.

In this primitive method of ascending trees, by which the head is thrown so far behind, we see also a likely explanation of the greater cervical curvature we have noticed in the aboriginal’s spine, when one compares it with the European’s. We might even venture to say that these processes originally brought about the lumbar curvature, and thereby laid the foundation to the acquisition of the erect posture, by means of which man learned to balance his head upon the vertical spinal column. Then the foot, which had been to a great extent modelled through his arboreal activities, stood man in good stead, and he began to walk erect between the trees.

The foot skeleton of the Tasmanian shows a peculiarity, in which it differs from that of the Australian on the mainland. Under normal conditions, the heel-bone of the Australian, and of the European as well, has a small elongation or process on the anterior side which separates the two adjoining small bones, the cuboid and the talus, from each other. But in the case of the Tasmanian the two small bones named lie in juxtaposition. This phenomenon is only occasionally noticed in Australian skeletons, and is quite exceptional in European; it is abnormal even in the anthropoids.

The Australian’s legs are often the subject of comment, if not ridicule; they are so thin and lanky. Even when the proportions of the chest and trunk as a whole are good, the legs usually remain unshapely. Even under the best of conditions, there is a paucity of flesh both in thigh and calf; the lower portions of the limbs are in the true sense of the word spindle-shanks.

Even the gluteal musculature is only moderately developed. Sedentary life and cosmetic culture seem to have been the principal factors at work in shaping this region in the modern European. Monkeys, on the other hand, show no considerable gluteal development at all. It would appear, therefore, that tree-climbing has not played a great role in developing these muscles, but seems rather to have influenced the growth of the deltoid muscle, which extends from the upper arm to the shoulder-blade and collar-bone, and of the big pectoral muscle.

The thigh-bone, although it is slender, like the rest of the long bones of the Australian, is abruptly dilated at its epiphyses, and, in that respect, differs considerably from the European femur, which widens gradually towards the extremities, in trumpet fashion. The Australian’s thigh-bone is more like the Neanderthal type, but the smallness of its head at once distinguishes it from the fossil. The slenderness of the shaft, together with the relative smallness of the condyles, brings the Australian femur nearer to the Pithecanthropus. Generally speaking, this bone is stronger in the Tasmanian than in the Australian.

One occasionally finds a strongly developed ridge or process in the upper portion of the Australian femur, which has been styled the third trochanter. At the lower extremity, the smooth depression on the anterior surface of the bone, between its condyles, is deep in the Australian and Tasmanian, and in that respect resembles the Neanderthal femur. The superior margin of the hyaline cartilage covering this depression is variable, and occasionally far exceeds the average European limit.

Among certain tribes of central and southern Australia, the tibia is often peculiarly flattened laterally, like a sword, whilst the anterior edge of the bone is remarkably prominent. This condition is known as platycnemia and has also been observed, quite frequently, in the skeletons of the extinct men of Europe and Egypt, and in the Negroid and Polynesian races.

Occasionally this platycnemic condition is associated with an exaggerated curvature of the anterior edge of the bone, a phenomenon which Dr. E. C. Stirling has described as camptocnemia. The popular name for it among bushmen is “Boomerang-Leg”; in some cases the tibia certainly has quite as large a curvature as some of the least bent of the familiar throwing sticks have.

In attempting to offer an explanation for this remarkable phenomenon, it is at the outset difficult to say to what extent it might be pathological, that is, the direct result of some constitutional disorder, like rickets, from which the individual, in whose shin-bone the curvature appears, might be suffering.

A theory has, however, been advanced to the effect that, since the anterior ridge of the bone represents part of the surface from which the tibialis posticus muscle arises, and since this muscle effects the adduction of the foot, when a person is walking, it is feasible that the altered shape and the increased bulk of the tibia may be due to that factor. The Australians, like other primitive hunters, are possessed of an astounding endurance when running down wounded game.

Dr. Ramsay Smith points out that there may be a connection between a platycnemic condition and the peculiar method the Australians have of lifting things from the ground with their toes, by which the tibialis posticus muscle is specially involved.

The fibula of the Australian is straight, and, especially in the case of the female Tasmanian, often has the end adjacent to the knee, which is known as its head or capitulum, prolongated in an extraordinary manner. This feature is of morphological interest because it harks back to a primitive condition in the evolution of the knee, in which the long bone of the lower extremity played a more important part in the action of the joint than it nowadays does in the human species.

In male Tasmanians the shoulder-blade is of considerable length, and its apparent narrowness is primarily due to the elongation of the infra-spinous fossa.

The humerus of the Australian shows a very small torsion, the angle being less than in any other human type. A foramen is not infrequently observed between the condyles of this bone. The Tasmanian humerus possesses a peculiar, laterally convex curve; and its internal condyle is often much enlarged.

As with ourselves, the bodily height of the Australian varies considerably, even within one and the same tribe. No great racial importance can on that account be placed upon statistical data in respect of height. The tallest individual I know of was a man of Yarrabah, near Cairns, in Queensland, who stood seven feet four inches high.[1] Some of the smallest men I have ever seen lived in the Tomkinson Ranges in Central Australia, who barely measured four feet six inches in height; yet among the same tribe were many men who stood over six feet. The smallest gin, the mother of two children, who has come under my observation, measured four feet five-and-a-half inches. She lived in the Katherine River district. We might claim from five feet four-and-a-half inches to five feet six inches as a reasonable average height for the male, and about five feet for the female.