To the mind of the Lenape, all the phenomena of nature, all the affairs of mankind, in fact the entire world as we know it, is under the control of invisible beings. Some are great and powerful, others of somewhat lesser influence, and so on down to the humble spirits of plants and stones. In some, good seems to predominate, in others, evil; but most of the manĭʹtowŭk, or spirits, seem to be, like mortals, a mixture of desirable and undesirable qualities.

SUPREME BEING

All the Lenape so far questioned, whether followers of the native or of the Christian religion, unite in saying that their people have always believed in a chief Manĭʹto, a leader of all the gods, in short, in a Great Spirit or Supreme Being, the other manĭʹtowŭk for the greater part being merely agents appointed by him. His name, according to present Unami usage, is Gicelĕmû‛ʹkaong‛, usually translated, “great spirit,” but meaning literally, “creator.” Directly, or through the manĭʹtowŭk his agents, he created the earth and everything in it, and gave to the Lenape all they possessed, “the trees, the waters, the fire that springs from flint,—everything.” To him the people pray in their greatest ceremonies, and give thanks for the benefits he has given them. Most of their direct worship, however, is addressed to the manĭʹtowŭk his agents, to whom he has given charge of the elements, and with whom the people feel they have a closer personal relation, as their actions are seen in every sunrise and thunderstorm, and felt in every wind that blows across woodland and prairie. Moreover, as the Creator lives in the twelfth or highest heaven above the earth, it takes twelve shouts or cries to reach his ear. An account of the worship of the Creator will be given later in connection with the description of the Annual Ceremony. The Minsi had similar beliefs, but the current name for the Great Spirit in that dialect today is Pa‛ʹtŭmawas, interpreted “He who is petitioned,” or Kĕ‛ʹtanĭtoʹwĕt, “Great Spirit.”

It has been frequently stated that the concept of a supreme being or chief of the gods was not known among the American tribes in precolonial times, and that the “Great Spirit” concept, now widely distributed among the Indians, is entirely the result of missionary teaching. This seems to have been the case in some instances, but it is a mistake to assume such a broad statement as a general rule, on a priori grounds. To the Indian mind, the spirits or gods partook largely of the nature of mankind—Why could not a chief of gods be as natural a concept as a chief of men? In the case of the Shawnee, the Creator or Great Spirit is usually spoken of as a woman, “Our Grandmother Pabothʹkwe”—surely not a missionary idea!

Let us trace back the Great Spirit concept among the Lenape, and find what the early writers say about it. Perhaps the earliest is in Danker and Sluyter’s Journal[2] of about 1679, in which an old Indian living near Bergen, New Jersey, is quoted as saying: “The first and great beginning of all things, was Kickeron or Kickerom, who is the origin of all, who has not only once produced or made all things, but produces every day.... He governs all things.”

William Penn,[3] in a letter dated Philadelphia, August 16, 1683, says: “They believe a God and Immortality; for they say, There is a King that made them, who dwells in a glorious country to the Southward of them, and that the Souls of the Good shall go thither, where they shall live again.” Further confirmation is given by Holm[4] in his book first published in 1702, where he says, “They acknowledge a Supreme Being, a Great Spirit, who made the heavens and the earth.”

Zeisberger[5] makes it even stronger, for he wrote, about 1779: “They believe and have from time immemorial believed that there is an Almighty Being who has created heaven and earth and man and all things else. This they have learned from their ancestors.” Heckewelder[6] (p. 205) adds more details in his book, originally published in 1818: “Their Almighty Creator is always before their eyes on all important occasions. They feel and acknowledge his supreme power.... It is a part of their religious belief that there are inferior Mannittōs, to whom the great and good Being has given command over the elements.”

Finally, in the little work ostensibly dictated by the Minsi John Wampum,[7] known as Chief Waubuno, undated, but probably printed in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, we have “The Great Spirit, whom we call in Munsee or Delaware Kaunzhe Pah-tum-owans or Kacheh Munitto (Great Spirit or Benevolent Spirit), created the Indians.”

Thus we have a practically unbroken chain of authorities, including most of the best ones since 1679, all speaking of the “Great Spirit” as a well-developed concept. But Brainerd,[8] writing in 1745, is not so positive in his statements, for he speaks of their notions being “so dark and confused, that they seemed not to know what they thought themselves.” He also says: “Before the coming of the white people, some supposed there were four invisible powers, who presided over the four corners of the earth. Others imagined the sun to be the only deity, and that all things were made by him. Others at the same time have a confused notion of a certain body or fountain of deity, something like the anima mundi.” Later (p. 349) he quotes a converted Indian conjurer, who, in describing the source of his former power, tells how it came from “a great man” who lived in a “world above at a vast distance from this. The great man was clothed with the day; yea, with the brightest day he ever saw ... this whole world ... was drawn upon him, so that in him, the earth, and all things on it, might be seen.”

Perhaps, as Brinton[9] suggests, the original Great Spirit of the Lenape might really be called the God of Light. Brinton, however, does not think that this Spirit of Light was of necessity a good spirit; still, the Lenape today who follow the native religion, acknowledging his goodness in their ceremonies, think that “the Creator wants them to do right,” and there is evidence[10] that the idea of goodness has been associated with that of the Great Spirit for a long time. Assuming that the Creator of the Lenape is the God of Light, what is it that leads men to worship the source of light? Is it not the self-evident benefits connected with light? It seems to the writer that goodness necessarily follows as an attribute of such a deity.

EVIL SPIRIT

The case is different with the Evil Spirit. The modern Lenape in Oklahoma make little mention of an Evil One, and James Wolf, my principal Minsi informant, did not speak of such a being at all, but there is some evidence, however, to show this belief to exist among the Lenape in more recent years.

Some writers do indeed make frequent mention of “the Devil” as figuring in early Lenape belief, but they translate the word “manĭʹto” as having that meaning, whereas it really signifies a supernatural being, good or bad. These writers evidently regarded as “the Devil” any deity not fitting into Christian doctrine.

But the real truth seems to be that, while in ancient times certain manĭʹtowŭk, or spirits, were supposed to work evil, the Devil (along with whiskey and other blessings) was introduced by the whites. The whole matter is well summed up by Loskiel[11] where he says: “Besides the Supreme Being, they believe in good and evil spirits, considering them as subordinate deities.... They seem to have had no idea of the Devil, as the Prince of Darkness, before the Europeans came into the country.” This idea is also supported by Zeisberger[12] and Brainerd,[13] although Holm[14] seems to give contrary evidence.

MANĬʹTOWŬK OF THE FOUR DIRECTIONS

The Lenape now in Oklahoma believe that when the earth was created, and everything finished, the Creator gave the four quarters of the earth to four powerful beings, or manĭʹtowŭk, whose duty it was to take care of these regions. These personages are the cause of the winds which blow from the different directions, with the exception of the tornado, which is thought to have a different origin. In the winter, it is said that the manĭʹtowŭk of the north and the south are playing the game of bowl and dice, with alternating fortunes. When the north wind is successful it is cold for a long time, until the south wind wins again. These manĭʹtowŭk are called Moxhomsaʹ Wähänjioʹpŭng‛, Grandfather at the East; No‛ʹoma Cawaneʹyŭng‛, Grandmother at the South; Moxhomsaʹ Eliosiʹgak, Grandfather at the West; and Moxhomsaʹ Lowaneʹyŭng‛, Grandfather at the North, the expression endalŭn towiʹyŭn, said to mean “who has charge of it” being frequently added after the name.

These are mentioned in the ritual of the Annual Ceremony, and the people often pray to them when gathering herbs or preparing medicines, at the same time offering tobacco.

The earliest record of this belief thus far found dates from 1616, and while it does not concern the Lenape proper, it illustrates a similar notion among a cognate people in Virginia. This is in Strachey’s work,[15] in which he states, “The other four [gods] have no visible shape, but are indeed the four winds, which keep the four corners of the earth.” Brainerd[16] mentions the same belief as being an old one among the Indians he knew, who were mainly Lenape, and as this was in 1745 we have at least a respectable antiquity established for “Our Grandparents at the Four Directions.” Loskiel also mentions them.[17]

THE SUN

To the Sun the Creator gave the duty of providing light for the people. The Unami say that he is a very powerful manĭʹto, and call him Gĭckokwiʹta. They speak of him as always clothed in the finest of deerskin garments, with his face handsomely painted, and wearing red feathers in his hair. Every day he travels across the heavens from east to west, stopping for a little while at mid-day, then going on. At night he comes back under the earth. The Minsi, according to James Wolf, called him Kiʹzho or Kiʹzhox, and Gickonĭkiʹzho is another Unami form of the name. When praying to the Sun, the Lenape usually addressed him as “Elder Brother.”

Little is found in early writings concerning the worship of the Sun, a mere mention in Brainerd,[18] and Loskiel,[19] by whom he is called “the sun or the god of the day.”

THE MOON

None of my Lenape informants had much to say of the Moon, except that it was regarded as the manĭʹto charged with the duty of supplying light by night, and that it was addressed, like the Sun, as Elder Brother. It is mentioned as a god, and called the “night sun” by Loskiel.[20] This is expressed by the Unami name Piskeʹwenikiʹzho.

THE EARTH

Some Lenape speak of the earth itself as a manĭʹto, and call it “Our Mother” because it carries and nurtures the people, having been assigned that duty by the Creator. Others, instead of the earth itself, mention a spirit beneath or within the earth, but apparently separate from it. The earth is mentioned in a list of gods by Loskiel.[21] In some localities, at least, it was addressed in the Annual Ceremony, and thanks were offered to it for the benefits it gives to man.

THUNDER BEINGS

Perhaps the most important of all the subordinate manĭʹtowŭk, excepting only the Sun and possibly the Keepers of the Four Directions, were the Thunder Beings, to whom the Great Spirit gave the duty of watering the earth and protecting the people against Great Horned Water-serpents and other monsters. The Unami told me that they are called Pethakoweʹyuk, and are addressed as Elder Brother. They are man-like beings with wings, and always carry a bow and arrows with which they can shatter trees. When the first thunder is heard in spring, the people say, “The Spring Flying Things are coming” and it makes them feel glad to think that winter is nearly over. Some burn tobacco and pray to the Thunders at this and other times, and for this reason they claim that the lightning never used to strike an Indian or to destroy Indian property.

The late James Wolf related an interesting Thunder myth, which will be found in the paper on Lenape Mythology to appear later, stating that the Minsi called the Thunders Pileʹswak, or Pileʹsoak, and believed them to exist in the form of gigantic partridges, although really persons, or rather manĭʹtowŭk. They used to live in Niagara gorge beneath the cataract, and could sometimes be seen coming out, in the form of a cloud, in which, as it rose, a play of lightning was visible. There were said to be three bands or parties of these mysterious beings, each band consisting of three Thunders.

Zeisberger[22] says, “Thunder is a mighty spirit dwelling in the mountains,” and Heckewelder,[23] “Indians, at the approach of a storm or thunder gust, address the Mannitto of the air, to avert all danger from them.” As a rule, however, the early writers do not seem to have noticed this belief, or have included it loosely under the worship of “gods” representing the elements.

KEEPERS OF THE HEAVENS

The Lenape now in Oklahoma believe that each of the twelve heavens, in the highest of which lives the Great Spirit, is presided over by a manĭʹto who serves as a messenger to repeat the prayers of men until they reach the ear of the Creator. They are represented by the carved faces upon the posts inside the temple, and are mentioned in the ritual of the Annual Ceremony. I can find no mention of them in early accounts of the Lenape, however, unless the twelve gods mentioned by Loskiel,[24] most of whom have already been spoken of in this chapter, may represent the same concept. The Lenape today speak of these as being related to the Living Solid Face, who will now claim our attention.

MĬSINGHÂLIʹKŬN, OR LIVING SOLID FACE

The most remarkable deity of the Lenape is the Mask Being, called by the Unami Mĭsinghâliʹkŭn, which was interpreted as “Living Mask,” or “Living Solid Face.” According to the Unami, this being was made guardian by the Creator of all the wild animals of the forest, and is sometimes seen riding about on the back of a buck, herding the deer; but he lives in a range of rocky mountains above the earth. His face is large and round, the right half being painted red, the left black, while his body is covered with long dark hair like that of a bear. Unlike most of the deities in the Lenape pantheon, he is represented by a “graven image,” a huge wooden mask, painted half red and half black (fig. 1); which is left in charge of some family who will take good care of it, and burn Indian tobacco for it from time to time. With the mask is kept a coat and leggings of bearskin to represent the being’s hairy body, a peculiar rattle of turtleshell (fig. 2), a stick, and a bag made of bearskin, all used by the man selected to impersonate Mĭsinghâliʹkŭn at the various ceremonies when he is supposed to appear, and which will be described later. To the back of the mask is fastened the skin of the bear’s head, which effectually conceals the head and neck of the impersonator (pl. II), while the bear’s ears, projecting, add to the uncanny effect.

If any Lenape had a child who was weak, sickly, or disobedient, he would send word to the keeper of the mask that he wanted Mĭsinghâliʹkŭn to “attend his child.” It is said that it did not take the impersonator long to frighten the weakness, sickness, or laziness out of the child, so that thenceforth it would be strong and well, and would obey on the instant when asked to do anything. This effect was probably strengthened by the mother saying, “If you don’t behave, Mĭsiʹngʷ‛ will carry you off in a bag full of snakes!” This seems to be the only trace of the doctoring function of the mask among the Unami. They also say that when the keeper burns tobacco for Mĭsinghâliʹkŭn and asks for good luck in hunting, “it turns out that way every time;” and if anyone has lost either horses or cattle, whether by straying away or through theft, he can go to the keeper of the Mĭsiʹngʷ‛ with some tobacco and recover them. All he has to do is to explain his errand to the keeper, who in turn informs Mĭsinghâliʹkŭn that they want him to look for these particular animals. The loser then goes home, and in a few days the missing stock return, driven back by this mysterious being. If they were tied or hobbled, it is said that the Mĭsiʹngʷ‛ appears to them and so frightens them that they break loose and come home. Mĭsinghâliʹkŭn has a special ceremony, held in the spring, and also participates in the Annual Ceremony at the Big House. This Mĭsiʹngʷ‛ is also called Weopĕʹlakis, to distinguish it from another, kept by a different family, which was not so important, and about which little was known by my informants except that, within their memories, it had never appeared at the Annual Ceremony, but that it probably had a spring dance of its own. There is an indistinct tradition, however, that in former times several masks were seen at the Annual Ceremony, and that half a day was given up to them.

Miniature masks (fig. 3) were often worn on the person as health or good-luck charms, in former days usually suspended from a string about the neck, but in later times carried in the pocket. The two large Unami masks in the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, are shown in pl. II and fig. 1.

Among the Minsi there are considerable differences in belief and in practice, their masks resembling those of the Iroquois in many particulars. The late James Wolf said that “Mizinkhâliʹkŭn” was supposed to live among the rocks on a hill, where he was first seen, and told the people how to obtain his power. The mask owners formed a society, which had a special meeting-house and ceremonies, and whose chief function it was to expell disease. This will be discussed further in another paper. Peter Jones[25] illustrates two Minsi masks in use in the first part of the nineteenth century, and these are here reproduced (pl. III). The first he calls a “Muncey idol,” and says that it was “delivered up by Joe Nicholas on his Conversion to Christianity,” and that “Me Zeengk is the name of this God”; while the second, which he names “a Muncey devil idol,” “formerly belonging to the Logan family,” was “delivered up on the 26th of Jan. 1842.” Jones does not refer to these “idols” in the text. The second mask illustrated seems to have a turtleshell rattle tied on its back, the handle projecting downward. Another mask, found by the writer among the Lenape at Grand river, Ontario, and apparently of Minsi type, is shown in fig. 4. It was collected for Mr. E. T. Tefft, of New York, but is now in the American Museum of Natural History.

Some of our best evidence indicating the early existence of belief in this Mask Being among the Lenape is furnished by archeology—by the finding of a number of heads or masks of stone (pl. IV) within the boundaries of their former domain in New Jersey and the vicinity,[26] which, when the rarity of such objects in the surrounding regions is also considered, seems quite significant. Such stone heads even mark the trail of the Lenape withdrawal westward through Pennsylvania,[27] and have even been found in Ohio, where they lingered for a time (fig. 5).

The best early description is given by Brainerd,[28] who, in May 1745, while on the Susquehanna above the English settlements, saw a masked Indian who must have been an impersonator of Mĭsinghâliʹkŭn. It runs:

With the exception of one minor point, the “wry mouth,” this would be a good description of the Mĭsiʹngʷ‛ outfit used until recently by the Lenape in Oklahoma (pl. II). On the following page, Brainerd mentions “images” which seem to be the Mĭsiʹngʷ‛ faces carved on the posts of the Big House.

Zeisberger[29] also refers to the masks in these words:

In his Dictionary, Zeisberger gives the word for “idol” as mĕsinkʹ, so it seems probable that the W in “Wsinkhoalikan” is a misprint for M.

MOTHER CORN

One of the important manĭʹtowŭk of the old days was the Corn Goddess, known as “Mother Corn” of whom one of the Unami legends collected by the writer relates that “It was God’s will that the Corn Spirit abide in the far heavenly region in the image of an aged woman, with dominion over all vegetation.” Although little remembrance of the details of her worship can now be found among the Oklahoma Lenape, she is mentioned as a Guardian Spirit; while at the Minsi ceremonies at Grand River Reserve in Ontario, she was one of the twelve benefactors of mankind to whom the thanks of the people were offered, and Minsi women mentioned “Sister Corn” in praying for good crops in the corn fields; while Zeisberger[30] says that the presiding Manĭʹto of Indian Corn or maize was spoken of as the “wife” of the Indian, and was offered bear’s flesh.