108 The Evening Service is preceded by a formal rescinding of previous vows. Of what kind were the vows which are thus annulled? None of those that were made by a member of the community individually. No one can by means of this formula free himself from the obligation to fulfil what he has promised to his fellow-man. The declaration concerns the whole congregation, and has probably its origin in the customs of former days, when those who refused to join in the communal work, or to submit to the law of the congregation, or shocked by any act of theirs the conscience of their brethren, or abandoned Judaism outwardly, were excommunicated and shut out from all contact with their co-religionists. Such transgressors, abarjanim, when desirous to pray in the Synagogue on the Day of Atonement, were admitted, and all opposition was silenced by the solemn declaration.
That such was the original object of Kol-nidre is sufficiently clear from its surroundings. It is preceded by the following announcement: “In the name of God, and in the name of the congregation, with the sanction of the Court above, and that of the Court below, we declare that it is permitted to pray together with those who have been transgressors (abarjanim).” Kol-nidre is followed by the verse, “And it shall be forgiven all the congregation of the children of Israel, and the stranger that sojourneth among them; seeing all the people were in ignorance” (Num. xv. 26).
The original object of this declaration does not apply at present; but it serves as a reminder of the following principles:—
1. We should always be disposed to forgive those who, in the heat of strife, acting under strong irritation, have offended us.
2. We should be careful with regard to vows, and before making them consider their effect.
3. We should reflect on human weakness, and consider that what we believe to be able to do to-day may prove impossible for us to-morrow. This reflection would remove every thought of pride from our heart and inspire us with humility. ↑
109 At the conclusion of the Service we once more proclaim the Unity of God (שמע ישראל), repeat three times the praise of His kingdom, and seven times that He alone is the Almighty. The sound of the shofar announces, as on the occasion of the Revelation on Mount Sinai, the conclusion of the Holy-day. ↑
110 The idea of introduction is implied in the term minchah, “introduction” (from the root נחה “to lead,” “to conduct”).—Minchah, originally denoting any present or offering, was the special name of flour-offerings, probably because flour or corn was the most common minchah offered by people to their sovereign.—Comp. “I will appease him with the present (minchah) that goeth before me, and afterwards I will see his face” (Gen. xxxii. 21). ↑
111 תפלה from פלל “to judge,” implies self-examination whether we are worthy of addressing the Most Holy. As to the purifying effect of prayer, see above, p. 183. ↑
112 This was necessary for two reasons: it served to foster a disposition for devotion and to assist the multitude in their endeavour to give expression to their feelings; it gave also uniformity to the prayers, which is indispensable in public Divine Worship (תפלה בצבור).—The free effusion of our heart before our Creator is by no means restrained, and is certainly not intended to be excluded by these regulations. ↑
113 מנהג עוקר הלכה “Custom overrules law,” is a well-known saying that is frequently acted upon (Soferim xiv. 18). ↑
115 This is one of the three explanations suggested in Babyl. Talm., Berachoth 29b: (1) A burdensome task, of which one desires to get rid; (2) a claim and not a supplication; (3) fixed without any spontaneous addition. ↑
116 Hence the phrases in the Talmud, “He went down toward the Ark” (tebhah), or simply “He went down” to read the tefillah. It was not so in all places of worship, because another phrase is sometimes used, “He passed toward the tebhah.” ↑
117 On such occasions a large congregation was expected, coming from the whole neighbourhood, and the Synagogue was considered too small. It is also possible that a prayer-meeting in the open air was intended to attract the indifferent, who did not attend the regular Services in the Synagogue. ↑
119 As our religion demands frequent recitations of berachoth in the course of the day, the custom spread among the Jews of keeping the head always covered. Comp. Babyl. T., Kiddushin 31a; Shulchan aruch, Orach Chayyim ii. 6. ↑
120 Attempts have been made to modify and to soften down the seemingly harsh words against those who design our ruin; some even wish to have the whole paragraph expunged from the prayer. In these attempts it has been ignored that the prayer is not directed against certain persons or nations; it is a petition for the protection of Israel from the wicked plans of evildoers. ↑
121 This fact is probably the source of the statement in Midrash Rabboth (Num. xviii.), that the tefillah before the birchath ha-tsadukim was added contained seventeen paragraphs. ↑
122 In the Temple the priests recited daily the Decalogue, and no objection was raised, because the congregation—priests, Levites, and general worshippers—constantly changed; and secondly, the very Service in the Temple sufficiently proved the existence of other Divine laws.—This ruling applies only to the addition of the Decalogue to the shema, not to its introduction into any other part of the Service. ↑
123 The priests were classed in twenty-four divisions; they had to perform a week’s active Service in the Temple by turns; the same was the case with the Levites. The Israelites of the district of which it was the turn of the priests and the Levites to serve in the Temple sent a deputation (Maamad) to Jerusalem, who represented them in the Temple; whilst they themselves held special prayer meetings, called Maamadoth. ↑
124 E.g., the addition of הנותן ליעף כח to, and the omission of שלא עשני בור from, the ברכות השחר. ↑
125 Machzor, lit., “Cycle” of prayers, both the obligatory and the optional, or the ordinary tefilloth and the piyyutim, for the various seasons of the whole year. It is called Machzor Vitry, after its compiler, Simcha of Vitry (about 1100). ↑
127 According to the Mishnah (Berachoth iv. 1), the time fixed for this Service is the first fourth of the day; but the notions of “early” and “late” are now different from what they were in ancient times. An extension of the time has long been conceded, especially for the Public Service on Sabbaths and Festivals. ↑
129 In the German Ritual for week-days a third berachah, beginning ברוך יי לעולם and concluding ועל כל מעשיו, is added. This berachah seems to have been at first a substitute for the Amidah, which was optional in the Maaribh Service. The substitute became in many congregations an integral part of the Maaribh, and was retained even when the Amidah was generally adopted as obligatory. On the eve of Sabbath and Festivals the Amidah was always recited, and there was no need for the substitute. The third berachah is therefore absent from the Maaribh on these evenings. ↑
131 As to the merits of Public Service, see above, p. 284. Ten male persons of thirteen years and upwards constitute a congregation, צבור (or מנין “number” or “quorum”), and their united devotions form Public Service (תפלה בצבור), into which the additions enumerated above are introduced. ↑
132 Before meals we wash our hands, say the blessing, על נטילת ידים, and eat a piece of bread after having said the berachah, המוציא.—Some wash their hands a second time (מים אחרונים) before Grace. See Shulchan-aruch, Orach-chayyim clxxxi. ↑
136 The Reader must be שליח צבור the real representative of, and acceptable to the congregants (Shulchan-aruch I. liii. 4). ↑
138 E.g., גשם and טל in the Musaph of the first day of Pesach and the eighth day of Succoth are based on the climatic conditions of Palestine. ↑
139 Those who fear that the seemingly harsh expressions might imply or suggest ideas and feelings of a baser kind can easily modify them and remove the sting.—Similarly, expressions contrary to our taste and sense of propriety ought to be removed. ↑
140 I.e., of the new corn. This law of חדש applied to the corn sown during the year preceding the festival of Passover and beginning with the previous Passover (Babyl. Talm., Menachoth 69). ↑
142 E.g., “Neither shall there come upon thee a garment of two kinds of stuff mingled together.” Such mixture is called שעטנז, and applies only to the mixture of wool and linen (Deut. xxii. 11). Another commandment belonging to this category is this: “Thou shalt not plow with an ox and an ass together” (ibid. 10). Ibn Ezra, in his Commentary on the Pentateuch (ad locum), suggests the following reason for this commandment, “The Almighty has mercy upon all His creatures; the strength of the ass being inferior to that of the ox, an unfair demand would be made upon the strength of the former when drawing the ploughshares together with the latter.” ↑
143 טרפה originally designated meat of animals torn by wild beasts, but it is used to designate food, especially meat, forbidden by the Law. All permitted food is called kasher (כשר). ↑
144 In accordance with the traditional explanation of the commandment, “Thou shalt not destroy the corners of thy beard” (Lev. xix. 27), a razor is not employed, and shaving is avoided; the hair of the beard and the face is clipped with scissors. This prohibition, like that of “rounding the corners of the head” (ibid.), belongs to a group of precepts which aimed at keeping the Israelites away from the idolatrous customs of their heathen neighbours. The second prohibition has led to the fashion noticeable among Russian and Polish Jews of letting the hair of “the corners of the head” (in Hebrew peoth) grow very long.—In the Mishnah (Kethubhoth vii. 6) it is mentioned as a distinctively “Jewish custom” that married women have their head covered when going out. Many Jewish women observe also this [468]custom within the house.—With these exceptions there is nothing in his dress and appearance that need distinguish the Jew from the Gentile, only that sometimes Jews are more conservative with regard to fashion than their neighbours, and old-fashioned style is then mistaken for “Jewish fashion.” ↑
145 Some people leave on one of the walls of the house a certain piece unpapered and unpainted as a sign of mourning for the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple. From the same reason, in some congregations, the bridegroom on the wedding-day has ashes strewn on his head. In accordance with Ps. cxxxvii. 6 we remember Jerusalem on various occasions. We recite Ps. cxxxvii. on week-days, and Ps. cxxvi. on Sabbath and Holy-days, after every meal. Again, when we give expression to our sympathy with mourners we pray that God may comfort them together with those who mourn for the destruction of Jerusalem. ↑
146 The above-mentioned exceptions, and the fact that the woman is passive in the marriage ceremony as well as in the case of a divorce, have been erroneously interpreted as evidence of the low estimate in which she is held by the Jewish Law. How the Jews were taught to honour their wives may be gathered from the Jewish marriage document, in which the husband promises “to honour his wife in accordance with the rule in practice among Jews, that every husband honours his wife.” There are, unfortunately, also bad Jews who ill-treat, neglect, or entirely abandon their wives; but these cases are exceptions, and proportionately less numerous than among non-Jews. On the whole, Jewish women are treated by their husbands with love and regard, and the good relations that exist between husband and wife ensure the comfort and happiness of both. ↑
147 To this respect for feminine modesty is due the arrangement made in the Synagogue for female worshippers (see p. 426). It is also the reason why girls have no ceremony corresponding to the celebration of the bar-mitsvah. ↑
148 Women do not like to do needlework on Saturday evening immediately after the close of Sabbath; it was considered a mitsvah to prolong the Sabbath, just as it is a sign of love and esteem if we induce a friend to defer his departure. The saying that only shrouds [474]are to be sewn on Sabbath evening may perhaps be traced to Mishnah, Shabbath xxiii. 4. ↑
149 In order to have warm food on Sabbath without breaking any of the Sabbath laws, the food is put in an oven which is heated in such a manner that the fire continues to burn without requiring to be stirred or rekindled, or in which the heat is otherwise retained. Such food is called chalet, which is probably a French word, corresponding to the Hebrew חמין “warm.” ↑
153 Jews consider it a duty to have guests (אורחים) at the table on three occasions, viz., the Seder-evening, Purim, and Succoth. ↑
154 The blessing generally consists of the priestly benediction, and the words of Jacob, “God make thee like Ephraim and like Manasseh” (Gen. xlviii. 20); Sarah, Rebeccah, Rachel, and Leah being substituted for Ephraim and Manasseh when females are addressed. ↑
156 Friday evening was especially selected for this purpose; the visitors were treated with fruit and sweets; and this secondary element in the custom became in course of time the principal thing. The custom received the name Shalom-zachar, probably from the usual greeting, “Shalom! (“Peace,” corresponding to our “How do you do?”) O male child!” ↑
157 In different countries there were different ways of expressing this sentiment. In some congregations a band (mappah) for the Sepher, with the name and birthday of the child inscribed on it, and ornamented with verses expressive of various good wishes, is presented to the Synagogue. ↑
159 Of those who assist in the mitsvah, the sandek (godfather), who holds the child during the operation, is the most prominent, and is called בעל ברית (“who is in possession of the covenant,” i.e., of the child to be initiated into the covenant). The religious enthusiasm required for the performance of this mitsvah is symbolically represented by “the chair of Elijah” (כסא של אליהו), upon which the child is placed before the operation; Elijah in Jewish Tradition being the type of religious zeal. ↑
162 The chief element in this Service is ברכת הגומל, the thanksgiving for the Divine protection enjoyed in the moment of danger. This Blessing is pronounced by (1) those who have crossed the sea, (2) or a desert, (3) or have recovered from a serious illness, (4) or have been released from prison. (Comp. Ps. cvii.) ↑
164 A misinterpretation of the dictum of Rabbi Eliezer, “Whoso teaches his daughter torah, teaches her, as it were, levity” (Mishnah, Sotah iii. 4), led many to believe that the Rabbis did not wish the daughters of Israel to know the Law. The dictum refers to a discussion which immediately precedes on the efficacy of the “bitter waters.” Rabbi Eliezer holds that it is dangerous to the morality of a woman to engage her thoughts with the details of the Law concerning a wife suspected of adultery (Num. v.). ↑
165 The feast in honour of the bar-mitsvah is סעודת מצוה only when it is accompanied by דברי תורה (“Words of the Law”) spoken by him. ↑
166 At festivities a glass was broken in order to remind those present of the transient nature of all earthly things, and thus warn them against excess of joy (Babyl. Talm., Berachoth 31a).—The same is done after the wedding ceremony. ↑
167 In the Talmud the custom of the ring is not mentioned; anything could be used, provided it had the value of a perutah, a small coin, and was the property of the bridegroom. Among Jews the use of the ring is a modern fashion. The ring must not contain any jewel or precious stone, the value of which can in many cases not easily be estimated, and which might therefore lead to misunderstanding and dispute. ↑
168 There are, besides, various explanations of the term chuppah: (1.) The wreath on the head of the bride when led to the marriage ceremony (הינומא, Mishnah, Kethubhoth ii. 10). (2.) A cover over the head of the bride; in some countries, therefore, instead of erecting a canopy, a talith is held over the bride and bridegroom during the ceremony; in others a separate ceremony of covering the head of the bride takes place before the actual marriage (comp. supra, p. 467, note 1). (3.) A private chamber into which bride and bridegroom retire for breakfast when the ceremony is over. ↑
169 In order to prevent mistakes the minister reads the formula slowly, and the bridegroom repeats it; the minister omits the word לי “unto me,” and the bridegroom inserts the word by himself, or assisted by some one else. ↑
170 “And of Israel” signifies: “According to the Jewish traditional interpretation of the Law of Moses;” these words are added because the rules of kiddushin are not directly mentioned in the Torah. ↑
171 The kethubhah is in its essential elements very old, and dates probably back to the time when the Jews in Palestine spoke Aramaic. The [486]settlement described in this document should be made to correspond with the actual deed of settlement legally executed. On the other hand, even the poorer bridegrooms should be induced to make a real settlement corresponding to the promises made in the kethubhah. The system of life insurance facilitates such a course. Otherwise the kethubhah has no importance. ↑
172 The contents of these Blessings are: (1) Benediction over wine; (2) praise of God as the Creator of the Universe, (3) as the Creator of man, (4) and of woman; (5) prayer for the comfort of Zion, (6) for the rejoicing of the young couple, and (7) for their united happiness. ↑
173 Lit., “Good planet.” The term has entirely lost its original meaning, and denotes simply “hearty congratulation.” ↑
174 In the Torah polygamy is not forbidden, but not encouraged. It was a luxury inaccessible to the multitude, and the king is distinctly told that he must not have many wives (Deut. xvii. 17). The principle of monogamy is implied in many Biblical passages, as, e.g., Gen. ii. 20 sqq.; Mal. ii. 14; Ps. cxxviii. 3; Prov. v. 18 sqq. ↑