Z. gemonensis s. viridiflavus inhabits France, Italy, the Balkan Peninsula, and Asia Minor. Its coloration is very variable. In general it is either green above and yellow below, hence the appropriate name viridiflavus, or the ground-colour of the back is greyish or olive-yellow with brownish spots, which form more or less longitudinal rows on the trunk, but gradually pass into blackish continuous lines on the tail; the under parts are yellow or greenish white, often with many very small, dark specks. The scales form seventeen or nineteen rows; the anal shield is divided. There are two small postocular scales and one subocular; of the eight labials, the fourth and fifth border the eye. This species is very lively, attacks and bites furiously, climbs well, and when suspended from branches can protrude half of its length in a horizontal direction. It eats any kind of Reptile, Bird, or Mammal it can master; small animals are swallowed directly, rats and moles are first killed by constrictions. Large specimens reach perhaps 6 feet in length.

Z. hippocrepis is the representative species in the Iberian Peninsula and in North-Western Africa. It is rarely more than 4 feet long, and is very pretty, the ground-colour being reddish or olive-yellow with a row of large, dark brown, yellow-edged spots along the back. Two rows of smaller spots adorn the sides; where the dark spots are large, the pale ground-colour is restricted to forming rings around the spots, producing a pretty appearance. The under parts are yellow or orange, with black spots. On the head is a dark, pale-edged patch in the shape of a horse-shoe, a feature alluded to by the specific name. Structural characters are the possession of a row of little subocular scales, which completely separate the eye from the labials, the double anal shield, and the small and smooth scales on the body, which form generally as many as twenty-seven rows.

Z. constrictor.–The American Black Snake. The scales are smooth, and arranged in seventeen rows; the anal shield is divided. The general colour above is uniform bluish-black; below slaty, tinged with blue; the chin and throat are silvery white, sometimes with a black spot. Large specimens attain a total length of 6 feet.

Holbrook gives the following exhaustive account of this species, about which many sensational stories are current even in would-be scientific periodicals:–

The "Black Snake" is one of the commonest of North American species. It is extremely active, climbing with facility, and running with great rapidity, whence it is not uncommonly called the "Racer." It frequents shady places, covered with thick shrubs, on the margins of water. It feeds on mice, toads, or small birds; and, as it is an excellent climber, is frequently seen on trees in search of birds' nests. It is a bold and daring serpent, enters barns and out-houses without fear, and has been known to destroy young chickens. Its specific name constrictor would imply that it suffocates or crushes its prey, but this according to Holbrook is at least doubtful. In the breeding season it is extremely irascible, and will frequently attack persons passing at a distance of several steps; the tail then quivers with rage, making a quick vibrating motion, which in forests and among dead leaves sounds not unlike the Rattle-Snake; it now elevates the head one or two feet from the ground, and darts upon its adversary; luckily its bite is harmless, and not more painful than the scratch of a pin.

"It will even descend from trees to attack its enemy if teazed, yet it does not twine itself around the legs, as is commonly supposed.

"The same power of charming its prey has been attributed to the Black as to the Rattle-Snake, and with still less appearance of reason; for this is a nimble animal, and can pursue its prey, while the Rattle-Snake must lie in wait for his. It is remarkable that the birds most commonly found 'charmed' are the Cat-bird (Turdus carolinensis) or red-winged Black-bird (Icterus phoeniceus). These birds choose thick and shady places on the margins of streams for their residence, and generally build their nests on such shrubs as the alder; the latter bird not unfrequently takes the precaution to select such bushes as are on small islands, or such as have their roots surrounded by water, and thus their home is more secure. Now the Black Snake chooses precisely the same localities, knowing probably the haunts of its prey. The serpent begins the war by besieging the nest; the old bird, aware of its intention, attacks it with fluttering and uncertain motions, accompanied by a plaintive cry of distress, and is then said to be 'charmed.' The snake is at last either driven off, or it captures the young and not unfrequently the old bird too.

"Sometimes the old bird, by her cries, calls in the assistance of her neighbours to drive away the aggressor. I have seen more than a dozen birds thus engaged with a large Black Snake that had probably just committed some depredation, but was now quietly stretched on a rock, basking in the sun; and it was not a little singular that birds of very different genera, and those seldom seen together, all united in this warfare against a common enemy, and finally compelled him to seek shelter among some low, thick shrubs, by the violence of their assault."

Zaocys, with about half-a-dozen species in South-Eastern Asia, is closely allied to Zamenis. Z. carinatus, of the Malay Islands, grows to 10 feet in length; it is consequently one of the largest harmless Colubrine snakes. The scales form only sixteen to eighteen rows. The sub-caudals are double. The general colour above is dark olive, passing into greenish brown farther back. The under parts are yellowish; black and yellow posteriorly. The fifth and sixth labials border the eye.

Coluber.–The maxillary teeth are of equal size, but the anterior mandibular teeth are the longest. The head is distinct from the neck. The nasals are distinct; not fused with the loreals. The eye is rather large, with a round pupil. The scales, smooth or keeled, have apical pits; the ventrals are rounded or angulate laterally; the sub-caudals are double. They all lay eggs and constrict their food. Nearly fifty species in the Periarctic region.

C. (Elaphis) quatuorlineatus s. quaterradiatus inhabits Italy and South-Eastern Europe. It occurs also in the Southern Tyrol. The scales of this large snake, which grows to nearly 6 feet in length, are arranged in twenty-five rows, and are feebly keeled. The anal is divided. Adult specimens have a yellowish-brown ground-colour with a pair of black streaks on each side of the back. A black line extends from the eye to the angle of the mouth; the under parts are yellow, mostly closely spotted with brown. This snake is good-tempered, and keeps well in captivity. They live on sparrows, mice, lizards, etc., and are very fond of eggs. Large specimens can swallow several fowls' eggs in succession; the crushed remains of the shells are later disgorged. This handsome snake climbs extremely well in search of birds and their eggs, and it is not afraid of the water. The prey is caught either with the teeth or by a rapid twist of the tail; in any case, the prey is always strangulated by the constriction of coils thrown round it. A sparrow thus secured is literally passed through the moving coils along the snake's body into a position convenient for swallowing. Hungry snakes catch and secure several birds or mice before eating them. My own specimens became almost affectionately tame, never attempted to bite, and took food from the hand.

C. leopardinus is smaller, but is one of the handsomest snakes of Southern Italy, South-Eastern Europe, and Asia Minor. It is closely allied to the previously described species. The ground-colour is pale brown with a dorsal series of dark brown or reddish, black-edged, transverse spots, and a lateral alternating series of smaller black spots, or with two dark brown, black-edged stripes bordering a yellowish vertebral stripe; usually with a forked black mark on the occiput and nape. The under parts are white, checkered with black, sometimes with the latter colour prevailing.

C. flavescens s. aesculapii is the Aesculap-Snake, for which the almost unknown name of longissimus has now been unearthed in deference to the fetish of priority. This snake is of an extremely graceful and slender build, with a very long tail. Its home is the South of France, Italy, and South-Eastern Europe. It occurs sporadically in the Tyrol, for instance near Bozen, in Austria, at Baden near Vienna, in Germany only in the Taunus, especially at Schlangenbad, which has received its name from the frequent occurrence of this snake. This sporadic distribution favours the idea that these snakes were introduced by the Romans as inmates of the temples erected to Aesculapius at such watering-places. Specific characters are the smooth and shiny scales, which are arranged in twenty-one to twenty-three rows, the distinctly angulate ventrals and the double anal and sub-caudals; the fourth and fifth of the upper labials border the eye, which has a round pupil. The coloration is very variable, as a rule olive-brown above with a dark streak behind the eye; the upper lips and a triangular patch on the temples are yellow; the under parts are uniform pale yellow. Some specimens are pale golden brown; others are very dark, almost black; while some have four darker stripes along the body, and lastly whitish specks occur on the upper surface. Large Aesculap snakes grow to a length of 5 feet. Their food consists chiefly of mice. They become very tame, although many of them at first bite furiously. Their climbing capacities are astonishing, the snakes being able to scale high and vertical walls provided there is the slightest "foothold." Some of my specimens escaped in the room and were at last found near the ceiling, resting on the rods of the curtains, up the folds of which they had managed to wriggle. Boulenger kept one for many years in a glass cage, where the snake entwined himself round the branches of a stick and allowed us to take him with the stick out of its socket and to inspect him. Being kept in an inhabited room, the snake did not exactly hibernate, creeping into the moss at the bottom of the cage; but it refused to feed, and remained in a rather drowsy condition coiled up on its favourite stand. During the pairing season they frequently resort to the water, at Schlangenbad at least; the few eggs are deposited under dry moss or in dry, decayed wood, and are hatched in about six weeks.

C. (Rhinechis) scalaris has the smooth scales disposed in twenty-seven rows. The snout is strongly projecting, and has a V-shaped dark mark on the top; a black streak runs through the eye, and another black spot lies below the eye. Young specimens are pale brown with a series of dark H-shaped marks on the back, suggesting a ladder, hence the specific name. In the adult these marks are replaced by a pair of brown stripes running along the back; the under parts are always uniform yellow. Total length about 3 feet. This snake is restricted to the Iberian Peninsula and to the South of France. Most specimens are very ill-tempered. The young live upon locusts and small lizards, the old eat mice and small birds. In captivity they also take dead animals–a rare habit with snakes.

Dendrophis with about ten species inhabits South-Eastern Asia and Australia. They are typical Tree-Snakes. The scales are keeled, and form only thirteen or fifteen rows; those of the vertebral row are enlarged; the ventrals have a pair of suture-like lateral keels and a notch on each side, arrangements which are of great assistance in climbing, these snakes being able to slide up the branches of trees in almost straight lines instead of having to twist and undulate their way up.

D. punctulatus, of Northern and Eastern Australia, is olive-brown above, uniform or with black edges and yellow outer borders to the scales. The upper lips, the throat and anterior ventrals, are yellowish. Total length up to 6 feet.

Leptophis is a Neotropical genus of Tree-Snakes. The body and the extremely long, whip-like tail are very slender. The head is very distinct from the neck; the eye is large, with a round pupil. The scales form thirteen or fifteen rows; the ventrals are sometimes angulate laterally; the sub-caudals are double. L. (Ahaetulla) liocerus is a beautiful snake, green above with a golden lustre, while the under parts are yellow or white. The total length of this species amounts to 6 feet, the tail then being nearly 2 feet long. These graceful Tree-Snakes live upon small reptiles and birds and their eggs. When shaken out of a tree or frightened off they let themselves fall down from considerable heights, coiling body and tail like a watch-spring, and alighting on the ground upon the spiral, which breaks the fall.

Coronella.–The teeth are nearly all of equal size and form continuous series. The scales are smooth and have apical pits; the sub-caudals are double. The head is scarcely distinct from the neck. The pupil is round. This genus, with nearly twenty species, is widely distributed except in the Australian region, the northern half of Asia, and South America. We can mention only the two European species, one of which occurs in England.

C. austriaca s. laevis, the Smooth Snake. The scales are arranged in nineteen rows. Mostly the third and fourth labials border the eye. The anal shield is divided. The general colour is brown or reddish above, often with one or two lighter stripes, with small dark brown or red spots; two dark brown or red stripes on the nape, usually confluent with a large dark patch on the occiput; a dark streak extends from the nostril through the eye to the angle of the mouth. The under parts are red, orange, brown, grey or blackish, either uniform or speckled with black and white. The coloration is, however, subject to much variation, and some specimens strikingly resemble some of the Common Viper, which is also very variable in its coloration. The resemblance is enhanced when the Smooth Snake broadens its head by widening the jaws, as it is in the habit of doing. Two such similarly coloured specimens are represented in Fig. 165. On closer inspection the differences are great enough, the harmless snake having smooth scales, and the top of the head being covered with large shields; while the Viper has keeled scales, the top of the head being covered mostly with scales, a vertical (not round) pupil, and, moreover, when attacked, usually coils itself into a spiral disc with the head standing out in the middle, ready to strike. However, these two species are sometimes mistaken for each other.–The Smooth Snake prefers lizards as food to anything else, but it also takes mice. The prey is hunted chiefly in the late afternoon and in the evening, and is constricted by the coils of the snake. When caught or even when handled after months of captivity, the Smooth Snake bites deliberately and firmly, selecting a suitable spot, for instance a finger, opens the mouth widely and almost chews the spot. The bite is of course quite harmless, and scarcely draws blood, few of these snakes attaining a length of more than 2 feet. They are viviparous, bringing forth about half-a-dozen young at a time. The range of the Smooth Snake extends over the greater part of temperate Europe, from England and the Iberian Peninsula to Berlin, and south-eastwards to Asia Minor. In England it occurs in a few counties only, for instance in Hampshire and in Dorsetshire.

C. girondica, of the South of France, Italy, the Iberian Peninsula and North-Western Africa, much resembles the English Smooth Snake, from which it differs in a few points only. The scales are arranged in twenty-one, rarely in nineteen, rows; usually the fourth and fifth labials border the eye; and the rostral shield, covering the end of the snout, is much broader than high. The coloration is variable, but there is always a pair of elongated blackish spots or a U-shaped mark on the nape.

Sub-Fam. 3. Rhachiodontinae.–With only a few teeth on the posterior part of the maxillaries, on the palatines and dentaries. Some of the vertebrae in the region of the lower neck have strongly developed hypapophyses, which are directed forwards and pierce the oesophagus. They are used for filing through or breaking the birds' eggs which seem to be the chief food of these snakes.

Dasypeltis scabra, the only species, inhabits Tropical and South Africa; although it reaches scarcely more than two feet and a half in length, such a specimen is able to swallow an ordinary fowl's egg. Pigeons' eggs are swallowed by snakes little more than one foot in length, which seems at first sight quite impossible. The swallowed egg distends the skin to its utmost capacity; it then slides down further, the snake makes some slight contortions and the swelling collapses; after a while the broken and sucked-out shell is vomited out as a crumpled up mass. Miss Durham has illustrated this curious process in a series of drawings.^[190]

Series B. OPISTHOGLYPHA.

One, or a few, of the posterior maxillary teeth have a groove or furrow in front, which conducts the secretion of the enlarged upper labial glands. Apparently all these snakes are more or less poisonous, paralysing their prey before or during the act of deglutition. So far as man is concerned they are rather harmless, since the poison is not very strong, not available in large quantities, and above all because the small poison-teeth stand so far back that the snakes cannot easily inflict wounds with them.

The Opisthoglypha are of considerable morphological interest, since they connect the Colubridae with the Viperidae, the characteristic poisonous apparatus of which seems to have been derived from that of the Opisthoglypha by the reduction or shortening of the anterior portion of the maxillaries and the harmless teeth, so that the posterior or poison-fangs come to the front.

The Opisthoglypha comprise about three hundred species and are cosmopolitan, including Madagascar but excepting New Zealand. They contain truly terrestrial, arboreal, and thoroughly aquatic forms.

Sub-Fam. 1. Dipsadomorphinae.–The nostrils are lateral and the dentition is well developed. Long-tailed, terrestrial, and arboreal forms. Most of the arboreal species are green above, often with white or yellow longitudinal bands, while the under parts are white or yellow. They feed chiefly upon lizards, birds and their eggs.

Dipsadomorphus s. Dipsas (part).–Typical, very long-bodied and long-tailed Tree-Snakes, with a vertical pupil. The median or vertebral row of smooth scales is enlarged; the broad ventral scales are bent at an obtuse angle on the sides, the resulting ridge assisting in climbing. The sub-caudals are arranged in two rows. Ten to fourteen maxillary teeth are followed by two or three enlarged, grooved fangs.

D. trigonatus, of India, grows to one yard in length. Yellowish olive or pale grey above, with a white, black-edged zigzag band along the back, or with a series of white, black-edged spots.

D. cyaneus, of Northern India, Assam, etc., is a beautiful Tree-Snake, green above, with the skin between the scales black, uniform greenish yellow below. Total length up to 4 or 5 feet.

Dipsas e.g. D. bucephala.–Maxillaries with eleven or more teeth. Pterygoids toothless. Body strongly compressed, with thirteen rows of smooth scales; the vertebral row enlarged; sub-caudals double; tail very long. Tropical South America.

Leptognathus with many species in Central and South America, like Dipsas, but with teeth on the pterygoids.

Coelopeltis.–Terrestrial and diurnal, with a round pupil. The row of small maxillary teeth is followed by one or two much larger, grooved fangs situated at a level below the posterior border of the eye. The first half-a-dozen mandibular teeth are much larger than the rest. The scales of the adult are more or less distinctly grooved longitudinally, hence the generic name, and are arranged in seventeen or nineteen rows. The sub-caudals form two rows; the ventrals are rounded off laterally. Two species in the Mediterranean countries and in South-Western Asia.

C. monspessulana s. lacertina is one of the largest snakes in Europe, reaching a length of 6 feet, of which the tail takes up 18 inches. Olive-brown or yellowish or reddish above, frequently with small, dark, light-edged spots. The sides are often blackish, with whitish specks. The under parts are yellowish white, with or without brownish markings. Some specimens are very green, with a dull blackish neck. One of the specific names of this terrestrial snake is the latinised form of Montpellier; the other refers to the shape of the head, which is not unlike that of a lizard, partly owing to the concave forehead. This species inhabits rather dry localities studded with shrubs, where it hunts for lizards, birds, and mice. It is sure to attract notice by its loud hissing when it is disturbed. When driven into a corner it strikes out furiously, but does not, as a rule, bite. I have caught some which after a few days became quite gentle. Small animals become torpid a few minutes after they have been bitten.

Macroprotodon cucullatus occurs in Andalucia, the Balearic Islands, and in North Africa. The dentition is peculiar. The fourth and fifth maxillary teeth are enlarged, followed by an interspace, then follow several small teeth, and lastly the two enlarged, grooved teeth. The sixth mandibular tooth is very long, separated by a space from the much smaller posterior teeth. The general colour of this sand-loving snake is pale brown or grey above with small spots or streaks on the trunk, and with a large black patch behind the head extending over the sides of the neck, hence the specific name. The under parts are bright red or yellowish, sometimes spotted with black. Total length under 2 feet.

Sub-Fam. 2. Elachistodontinae.–With only a few teeth on the posterior part of the maxillary and dentary bones, and on the palatines and pterygoids. Some of the vertebrae in the thoracic region have much-developed unpaired hypapophyses, which are directed forwards and pierce the dorsal wall of the gullet. In this respect Elachistodon westermanni, of Bengal, the only species, bears a striking resemblance to the South African Aglyphodont Dasypeltis (see p. 622), and it is probable that this apparently very rare Indian snake also swallows eggs. It is brown above, with a yellowish vertebral stripe; yellowish below.

Sub-Fam. 3. Homalopsinae.–The nostrils of these absolutely aquatic and viviparous snakes are valvular, and are situated on the upper surface of the snout. The eyes are small with vertical pupils. The two dozen species, mostly very ugly, inhabit the rivers and estuaries of the East Indies from Bengal to North Australia. Some species have very small and narrow ventral scales, recalling the Hydrophinae, or the burrowing snakes, none of which use their ventral scales for locomotory purposes.

Homalopsis buccata, Cerberus rhynchops and Hypsirhina, e.g. H. plumbea, have well-developed ventral scales; the other scales of the first two genera are keeled, those of the third are smooth. In Hipistes the whole head is covered with very small scales; all the scales of the body are smooth except the very narrow ventrals, which have double keels. H. hydrinus, of Siam and the Malay Peninsula, has a compressed body, and in its general appearance much resembles the Hydrophinae. It lives, like its allies, upon fishes, and it swims far out into the sea.

Series C. PROTEROGLYPHA.

The anterior maxillary teeth are deeply grooved, or so folded as to appear hollow or perforated. Behind these enlarged poison-fangs the maxilla carries a series of smaller, solid teeth; hence the term "proteroglyphous," which means that the anterior teeth are grooved, in opposition to "opisthoglyphous." Both series have been developed independently.

The Proteroglypha are all extremely poisonous, mostly viviparous, and widely distributed over the whole of the Australian, Palaeotropical and Neotropical regions, with the exception of Madagascar and New Zealand; they extend northwards into the warmer parts of North America, and they also range over a great portion of the Palaearctic sub-region, being found in North Africa and South-Western Asia. They form two natural sub-families: Elapinae, with cylindrical tails, and Hydrophinae or Sea-Snakes, with laterally compressed tails.

Sub-Fam. 1. Elapinae.–The tail is cylindrical. The Elapinae comprise nearly 150 species, which have been grouped into a great number of, mostly somewhat imaginary, genera. In Australia they constitute the great majority of Snakes, there being besides the deadly Elapinae only a few Pythons and Typhlopidae, and very few Colubrinae.

Naja.–The pair of large and grooved poison-fangs are separated by an interspace from one to three small, faintly grooved teeth near the posterior end of the maxillaries. The scales are smooth and without pits, and are arranged in fifteen to twenty-five oblique rows on the trunk, although more occur in the region of the neck; the vertebral row is not enlarged. The head is but slightly distinct from the neck. Each nostril lies between two nasals and the internasal. The sub-caudals form two rows. The pupil is round. The neck-region can be expanded into a hood by the spreading and moving headwards of the ribs. Several species in Southern Asia and in Africa.

N. tripudians (the "Cobra").–The coloration varies much. The typical form is yellowish to dark brown with a black and white spectacle-mark on the dorsal side of the hood, and with a large black and white spot on each side of the corresponding under surface. Other specimens are uniform pale brown to blackish grey, without any markings on the hood. The Cobra is widely distributed, from Transcaspia to China and to the Malay Islands; in the Himalayas it ascends to about 8000 feet above the level of the sea. Very large specimens are said to attain more than 6 feet in length, but a cobra of 5 feet, inclusive of the tail of 9 inches, is considered large. The Cobra prefers places which afford it a convenient hole to retire into; for instance, deserted hills of termites, ruins, heaps of stones and stacks of wood, and it has the disagreeable habit, like the harmless Rat-snake, Zamenis mucosus, of making itself at home in inhabited houses, probably attracted by the rats. Its chief food consists of small Vertebrates;–frogs, lizards, rats, occasionally fishes and small birds. It drinks much, and hunts chiefly in the late afternoon and in the evening, although it possesses a round pupil. It avoids hot sunshine. Many observations show that the cobras live in pairs, otherwise they do not take much notice of each other or of other kinds of snakes. The female lays about a dozen soft-shelled eggs as large as those of pigeons.

This cobra is used by Indian conjurers. The "dance" is the habit of these snakes of erecting themselves, when agitated, upon the hinder third or quarter of their length, whilst they spread out the hood and sway the head and neck to the right and left, always in an attitude ready for striking. They are docile and by nature not vicious. Most of the performing cobras have their teeth drawn, and they then know well that they cannot bite. They only strike at the hand, just as uninjured specimens soon avoid biting into the iron rod with which they are lifted up in menageries. The drawing of the teeth is an operation which has to be repeated, since reserve-teeth soon take the place of the lost pair.

I cannot refrain from relating an abstract of a ridiculous episode which happened in the Munich Aquarium in the year 1882. One of six specimens of the African species Naja haje was missing. The police closed the establishment, which during the following eight days was turned inside out without any other effect than that two other, harmless, snakes were discovered. Twice the building was fumigated with sulphur, until the Cobra was at last found suffocated, fifteen days after the beginning of the search. This snake caused the owner of the Aquarium a loss of nearly £1500. But the cruel joke was, that during the commotion the man who had collected and sold the six snakes declared upon oath that their teeth had been so well drawn and the germs of possible reserve-teeth had been so thoroughly destroyed that the snakes were rendered absolutely harmless. But he was not believed, in spite of a commission of professors and doctors appointed, who experimented upon the remaining five Cobras with sulphur and did not find any poison-fangs, "although the mouth was probed and poked into as far down as the larynx."

Cobras have quite a number of enemies. Peafowl and Jungle-cocks are said to be partial to young snakes; pigs eat them greedily, and are to a certain extent immune against their bite. The same applies, according to the most recent observations, to the famous Mongoos. Sir E. Tennent, in his Natural History of Ceylon, quoted several times in the present book, makes the following remarks about the immunity of this little creature:–

"I have found universally that the natives of Ceylon attach no credit to the European story of the Mongoos (Herpestes griseus) resorting to some plant, which no one has yet succeeded in identifying, as an antidote against the bite of the venomous serpents on which it preys. There is no doubt that, in its conflicts with the cobra and other poisonous snakes, which it attacks with as little hesitation as the harmless ones, it may be seen occasionally to retreat, and even to retire into the jungle, and, it is added, to eat some vegetable.... A number of plants, such as the Ophioxylon serpentinum and Ophiorhiza mungos, the Aristolochia indica, the Mimosa octandria, and others, have each been asserted to be the Ichneumon's specific.... If the Ichneumon were inspired by that courage which would result from the consciousness of security, it would be so indifferent to the bite of the serpent, that we might conclude that, both in its approaches and its assault, it would be utterly careless as to the precise mode of attack. Such, however, is far from being the case; and next to its audacity, nothing can be more surprising than the adroitness with which it escapes the spring of the snake under a due sense of danger, and the cunning with which it makes its arrangements to leap upon the back and fasten its teeth in the head of the cobra. It is this display of instinctive ingenuity that Lucan celebrates where he paints the Ichneumon diverting the attention of the Asp by the motion of his bushy tail, and then seizing it in the midst of its confusion. See Pharsalia, lib. iv. verses 729-734."

There is a widespread belief in the efficacy of "Snake-stones," which are generally pieces of charred bone, well polished, occasionally pieces of chalk or some similar porous substance, which, if pressed upon the bleeding wound, are supposed to absorb the poison. Snake-charmers profess to prepare such "stones," and to preserve the composition as a secret. The manufacture is a lucrative trade. The Boers bought them, imported from India, at high prices. Mr. Selous saw one, or heard of one, that was kept as an heirloom. Snake-stones are also made, and used, in Mexico, of charred hartshorn; they are called "piedras ponsonas."

The use of the Snake-stone, called "Pamboo-Kaloo," has probably been communicated to the Singhalese by the itinerant snake-charmers who resort to the island from the coast of Coromandel.

Although Sir E. Tennent describes several instances of the successful application of snake-stones as well authenticated, he has never himself been an eye-witness. Although two cases have been fully described, they do not at all exclude the possibility, nay the probability, that the Tamils imposed upon the Europeans in order to sell the snake-stones.

"No doubt the snake-stones, owing to their porous nature, adhered to the bleeding wound, became saturated with blood, and then fell off. Very likely, in case of a poisonous bite, some of the venom would be sucked up too, but we do not know if those snakes were still in the possession of their poison-fangs. Properly conducted experiments with snake-stones have proved as little efficacious as the application of dry cup.

"Theoretically snake-stones as quick absorbent agents of the blood with the poison are good; they will certainly prevent some of the poison from entering the system, but that would, at best, be a partial cure only.

"In March 1854 a friend of mine was riding, with some other civil officers of the Government, along a jungle path in the vicinity of Bintenne, when he saw one of two Tamils, who were approaching the party, suddenly dart into the forest and return, holding in both hands a Cobra de capello, which he had seized by the head and tail. He called to his companion for assistance to place it in their covered basket, but in doing this, he handled it so inexpertly that it seized him by the finger, and retained its hold for a few seconds, as if unable to retract its fangs. The blood flowed, and intense pain appeared to follow almost immediately; but with all expedition the friend of the sufferer undid his waist-cloth, and took from it two snake-stones, each of the size of a small almond, intensely black and highly polished, though of an extremely light substance. These he applied, one to each wound inflicted by the teeth of the serpent, to which they attached themselves closely; the blood that oozed from the bites being rapidly imbibed by the porous texture of the article applied. The stones adhered tenaciously for three or four minutes, the wounded man's companion in the meanwhile rubbing his arm downwards from the shoulders towards the fingers. At length the snake-stones dropped off of their own accord; the suffering of the man appeared to subside; he twisted his fingers till the joints cracked, and went on his way without concern. Whilst this had been going on, another Indian of the party, who had come up, took from his bag a small piece of white wood, which resembled a root, and passed it gently near the head of the cobra, which the latter immediately inclined close to the ground; he then lifted the snake without hesitation, and coiled it into a circle at the bottom of his basket. The root by which he professed to be enabled to perform this operation with safety he called the "Naya-thalic kalanga" (the root of the snake-plant), protected by which he professed his ability to approach any reptile with impunity."

The following narrative, communicated to Sir E. Tennent by H. E. Reyne, of the Department of Public Works, Colombo, seems to exclude the possibility of deception:–

"A snake-charmer came to my bungalow in 1854, requesting me to allow him to show me his snakes dancing. As I had frequently seen them, I told him I would give him a rupee if he would accompany me to the jungle and catch a cobra that I knew frequented the place. He was willing, and as I was anxious to test the truth of the charm, I counted his tame snakes, and put a watch over them until I returned with him. Before going I examined the man, and satisfied myself he had no snake about his person. When we arrived at the spot, he played on a small pipe, and after persevering for some time, out came a large cobra from an ant-hill, which I knew it occupied. On seeing the man it tried to escape, but he caught it by the tail and kept swinging it round until we reached the bungalow. He then made it dance, but before long it bit him above the knee. He immediately bandaged the leg above the bite, and applied a snake-stone to the wound to extract the poison. He was in great pain for a few minutes, but after that it gradually went away, the stone falling off just before he was relieved. When he recovered he held a cloth up, which the snake flew at, and caught its fangs in it; while in that position, the man passed his hand up its back, and having seized it by the throat, he extracted the fangs in my presence and gave them to me. He then squeezed out the poison on to a leaf. It was a clear oily substance, and when rubbed on the hand produced a fine lather. I carefully watched the whole operation, which was also witnessed by my clerk and two or three other persons."

N. haje is the common hooded cobra of Africa, the "Aspis," so called on account of its shield or hood–the "Spy-Slange" of the Boers. As a rule the spectacle-marks on the neck are absent or indistinct, the general colour varies much, either brown above, yellowish beneath, with or without brown spots; or dark brown above with yellowish spots, dark brown beneath; or blackish above and beneath. The name Spy-Slange, meaning Spitting Snake, refers to the habit which this and other African Cobras have of letting the poison drop from the mouth like saliva when they are excited. This is not a particularly economical habit, nor is it of the slightest use to the snake.

N. (Ophiophagus s. Hamadryas) bungarus s. elaps is the "Hamadryad" or "Snake-eating Cobra" or "King Cobra." It has a well dilatable hood; the very variable coloration is yellowish to black, with or without an olive gloss. Many specimens have more or less distinct dark cross-bands or rings around the body, while others are olive above with black-edged scales, and others again are very dark above and beneath. The distinctive, specific character is the small number of scales, these forming only fifteen rows on the middle of the body, nineteen or twenty-one on the dilatable neck. There is a pair of large occipital shields behind the parietals.

This snake reaches the length, enormous for a poisonous snake, of 12 feet or more. Its size and very poisonous nature make it the curse of the jungle. It ranges from India to South China, and to the Philippines. The food seems to consist entirely of other snakes.

Sepedon haemachates is another hooded snake in South Africa, where it is known as the "Ringhals," i.e. banded neck. It differs from Naja by the absence of small teeth on the maxillaries behind the fangs, and by the strongly keeled scales, which form nineteen rows. The general colour is black above variegated with yellow or pale brown; the under parts are also black, often with one or two whitish bands across the lower portion of the neck.

The Rev. G. Fisk^[191] mentions the case of two young "Ringhals," of 10 and 9 inches in length, having been attacked and partly devoured by a mouse, supposed to be Dendromys melanotis, which was put with the snakes in a band-box. On the habits of the Ringhals see Symonds.^[192]

Bungarus.–The scales are smooth, and form thirteen to seventeen rows. The spine is very prominent, and the median row of scales which covers the ridge is much enlarged. There is no dilatable hood. In other respects Bungarus is closely allied to Naja; about half-a-dozen species, in South-Eastern Asia.

B. fasciatus reaches a length of 5 feet. The general colour is bright yellow, alternating with blackish rings.

B. coeruleus s. candidus is the dreaded "Krait," occurring in the whole of the Indian sub-region. It is dark brown or bluish black with narrow cross-bars or white specks, or it is alternately barred brown and yellow; the under parts are uniform white. Total length rarely 4 feet.

The "Krait" seems to cause more deaths in India than any other snake, since it is very common, especially in Bengal and in Southern India, and often creeps into the houses. It lives chiefly on rats, lizards, and snakes.

Callophis.–With only thirteen rows of smooth scales. The head is small, not distinct from the neck. The small eye has a round pupil. The short tail has two ventral rows of scales. The whole body is cylindrical. Several small species, one or two feet in length, in South-Eastern Asia. C. macclellandi in India and Indo-China is reddish brown above, yellow below, with regular, equidistant, black, light-edged cross-bands or rings. Total length up to 2 feet.

Doliophis differs from Callophis mainly by the enormously developed poison-glands which, instead of being restricted to the head, extend along the anterior third of the body, gradually thickening, and terminating in front of the heart with club-shaped ends. Owing to the extension of these glands, which can be felt through the skin as thickenings at the end of the first third of the body, the heart has been shifted farther back than in any other snake. Several species in Indo-China and in the Malay Islands, D. intestinalis with many colour-variations.

Australia suffers from an abundance of Elapine snakes, of which we will mention only the three commonest.

Pseudechis e.g. Ps. porphyriaceus, the "Black Snake" of Australia, has seventeen rows of smooth scales on the body, a few more on the neck, which however is not, or is only slightly, dilated. A few of the sub-caudal scales are undivided, the rest are paired. The head is distinct from the neck; the pupil is round. Total length up to 5 or 6 feet. The general colour above is black, with the outer row of scales red at the base; the ventral scales are red with black edges. The females are generally more brown than black, and are therefore sometimes known as "Brown Adders." They live on small mammals, birds, lizards and other snakes.

Notechis scutatus s. Hoplocephalus curtus, the "Tiger Snake," has rather small eyes with round pupils. The head is distinct from the cylindrical body, which is covered with fifteen to nineteen rows of smooth scales. The sub-caudals are single. The head of this variably coloured snake is mostly black, the body olive brown with dark cross-bands; towards the tail the coloration becomes more uniformly blackish. The under parts are pale yellow. The range of this very common snake extends over Tasmania and Australia.

Acanthophis antarcticus, the "Death Adder," is easily recognised by the peculiar tail, the end of which is laterally compressed, beset with a few rows of enlarged imbricating scales, and terminates in a thin horny spine. The head is distinct from the neck, and flat; the eye has a vertical pupil. The short and thick body is covered with twenty-one or twenty-three rows of keeled scales. The anterior caudals are single, the posterior double. The colours of the upper parts are a mixture of brown, reddish and yellow, with dark cross-bands. The belly is pale yellow, often spotted with brown or black. The end of the tail is yellow, reddish brown or black. The total length of this stout and ugly viviparous creature remains under 3 feet. It is widely distributed from South Australia to the Moluccas. The use of the peculiar tail very probably consists in attracting or fixing the attention of small animals; the snake, lying coiled up on a dry and sandy spot, slightly raising and vibrating the tip of the tail.

Elaps is an entirely American genus, with many species, most of which are extremely prettily coloured, red and black in alternate rings being a favourite pattern. The maxillaries carry no teeth behind the poison-fangs. The scales of the body are smooth and form fifteen rows. The tail is short. The small eye has mostly a vertical pupil. The head is very small, not distinct from the neck. The squamosal and quadrate bones are short, and the gape of the mouth is so limited that these beautiful snakes, although possessing strong poison, are practically harmless to man. One of the prettiest is E. corallinus of the forests of Tropical South America and the Lesser Antilles. The whole body, above and below, is adorned with about twenty deep black rings, which are edged with yellow and again separated by red rings equalling in width the black ones. Sometimes the red rings are dotted with black, and the black dots may form additional rings between the red and the yellow. Total length under 3 feet.

Sub-Fam. 2. Hydrophinae (Sea-Snakes).–The tail is strongly compressed, sometimes the body also. All the scales are small, and there are often no enlarged ventrals. The eyes are small, with round pupils. All these snakes are very poisonous and live in the sea, often at considerable distances from the land, with the exception of one species of Distira, D. semperi, which is confined to the land-locked freshwater Lake Taal at Luzon in the Philippines. They live on fish, and range from the Persian Gulf to Central America. In conformity with their absolutely aquatic life they are viviparous, and they die when kept out of the water for any length of time. About fifty species are known.

Enhydrina valakadien s. bengalensis has scales with a small tubercle or keel, which is stronger in the males; the ventrals are very small, forming a scarcely enlarged series. The maxillaries carry two or more small grooved teeth in addition to the poison-fangs. The back is olive or dark grey, with black transverse bands, which are most distinct in the young. The under parts are white. This species ranges from Persia to the Malay Islands.