Though they understand the different measures in music, and have names for them; yet they have no method of writing the notes. They learn entirely by the ear; yet it is observable, that when several persons play together they keep time very exactly. They have neither bass, nor other different parts in music, all playing the same.

The print annexed represents a Turkish concert, drawn from the life; in which care has been taken also to show, through a window, the inner court-yard of a house, with the little garden, fountain, &c. and through another is seen part of a mosque, with the minaret, from whence the imaums call the people to prayers. The dress of the performers also show the different kinds wore by the ordinary people, according to their sect, &c. The first, who beats the diff, represents that of an ordinary Turk; the next a slovenly ordinary Christian; the middle figure is a Dervise; the fourth is a Christian of a middle rank, playing upon the Arab fiddle. What is peculiar in his dress, is, that the sash of the turbant is strip’d with, blue, and his slippers red. The last is an ordinary fellow, beating the small drums with his fingers, as they often do, instead of drumsticks. His head-dress is such as is worn by many Janizaries, and commonly by the Arabgarlees, a race of Armenians, who attend upon the Europeans.

Whatever figure the inhabitants of this country made formerly in literature, they are at present very ignorant. Many bashaws, and even farmers of the customs, and considerable merchants, cannot either read or write. It must be observed, however, that their youth of late years are better taught than formerly; though, even at this time, their education seldom extends farther than just to read a little of the Koran, and write a common letter, except such as are bred to the law or divinity, which are closely allied in this country. The professors of both usually pretend likewise to some skill in physic. In the time I lived there, only one inhabitant of the place understood enough of astronomy to be able to calculate the time of an eclipse; for which he was looked upon as a very extraordinary person. Numbers there are who imagine they understand judicial astrology, in which the natives have great faith: but it would take up too much time even so much as to mention their various superstitions in this and many other respects.

In the city there are a great number of colleges, but very little taught in them; they being generally built by such as have raised great estates by oppression, and other bad means, and are intended by the founders, partly as an atonement for their wickedness, and partly to secure an estate in the family, their descendents being commonly appointed curators of these endowments, and seldom fail to apply to their own private use what seemed intended for public benefit; and thus the school soon runs to decay. Many of these have a sort of library belonging to them, and a few private men among the learned have some books; but these are very rarely good for much, and are kept more through vanity, than for any use they either make of them themselves, or suffer to be made of them by others.

Though the Turks are predestinarians, they are taught however to believe, that tho’ God has afflicted mankind with diseases; yet he has sent them also the remedies, and they are therefore to use the proper means for their recovery: so that practitioners in physic are here well esteemed, and very numerous. These are chiefly native Christians, and a few Jews. The Turks seldom make this their profession. Not one of the natives, however, of any sect is allowed to practise without a licence from the Hakeem Bashee; but a few sequins are sufficient to procure this to the most ignorant; and such most of them are egregiously, for they have no colleges in which any branch of physic is taught: and as the present constitution of their government renders the dissection of human bodies impracticable, and that of brutes is a thing of which they never think, they have a very imperfect idea of the situation of the parts, or their functions.

Of the use of chemistry in medicine they are totally ignorant; but now and then one amongst them just acquires a smattering enough of alchemy to beggar his family by it.

Many of them are brought up under masters who live by the profession of physic; but these are seldom capable of teaching them much; and, to conceal their own ignorance the more effectually, they commonly pretend to a number of secrets not to be disclosed: so that such of them as know any thing, must obtain it by their own reading and observation. But to the latter they are seldom much indebted, as they look upon whatever they find in any book as an established fact, and not to be by them contradicted, however opposite it may appear to their own experience.

The books they have amongst them are some of the Arabian writers; Ebensina in particular, whose authority is indisputable with them. They have likewise some translations of Hippocrates, Galen, Dioscorides, and a few other ancient Greek writers. But their copies are in general miserably incorrect. Hence it may easily be seen, that the state of physic among the natives in this country, as well as every other science, is at a very low ebb, and that it is far from being in a way of improvement.

But, ignorant as they are in regard to physic, they are great matters in temporising, and know how to suit a plausible theory to the patient’s way of thinking; in doing which they scruple not to quote the authority of Hippocrates, Galen, and Ebensina, in support of opinions the most ridiculous and absurd.

It is from the pulse alone that they pretend, and are expected to discover all diseases, and also pregnancy: from their confidence in which last they are daily the death of numbers of infants, by persuading the women that their complaints are from obstructions, and giving them medicines accordingly; while many others, under real diseases, are amused with the hopes of pregnancy till past recovery.

Their practice is very trifling in most cases, and commonly adapted rather to suit the opinion of the sick, and those about them, than the cure of the disease. While they apprehend the sick to be in no danger, they attend close, and give quantities of medicines; but, as soon as they think they are in danger, they do not go near them unless sent for, and then give no medicines, but advise the relations to use some trifling things; for which indeed they have some reason, for commonly the last medicine taken is held to be the cause of the patient’s death.

What has been said with regard to practitioners in physic, relates solely to the natives; for the Europeans, of whom there are several, practise in their own way, and are greatly respected by the inhabitants; though, partly to save their money, and partly from a notion of their giving violent medicines, they seldom apply to them, till they have tried their own doctors to no purpose.

Though their bards are the last mentioned, yet they are far from being the least worthy of notice; for at times a poetical genius shows himself among them, and produces some things which they greatly esteem.

A particular description of their dress, as it would be foreign to my purpose, so it would carry me beyond my proposed limits. Some tolerable idea of it may be gathered from Plate XIV. XV. and XVI.⁠[454]. All that I shall say, therefore, on this head is, that, notwithstanding their peculiar attachment to ancient customs, they are of late become not a little extravagant in this article. And though their fashions do not alter so quick as in Europe, yet they do alter, and that not seldom. Such of their singularities, however, in respect to dress and ornament, as seem more immediately to regard their health, it may be proper to mention.

Some of the old men dye their beards, and the old women their hair, of a red colour, with henna, which gives them a very whimsical appearance; and many of the men dye their beards black, to conceal their age⁠[455].

Few of the women paint, except among the Jews, and such as are common prostitutes; but they generally black their eye-brows, or rather make artificial ones, with a certain composition which they call hattat⁠[456]. This practice, however, is daily declining.

Upon a principle of strengthening the sight, as well as an ornament, it is become a general practice among the women, to black the inside of their eye-lids, by applying a powder called ismed⁠[457]. Their method of doing it is by a cylindrical piece of silver, steel, or ivory, about two inches long, made very smooth, and about the size of a common probe. This they wet with water, in order that the powder may stick to it; and applying the middle part horizontally to the eye, they shut the eye-lids upon it, and so drawing it through between them, it blacks the inside, leaving a narrow black rim all round the edge. This is sometimes practised by the men, but is then regarded as foppish.

Another singular method of adorning themselves the women have, which is, by dying their feet and hands with henna; which is brought in great quantities from Egypt, chiefly for that purpose, as the practice is general amongst all sects and conditions. The common way is only to dye the tips of the fingers and toes, and some few spots upon the hands and feet, and leave them of a dirty yellow colour, the natural tincture from the henna, which to a European looks very disagreeable. But the more polite manner is to have the greatest part of the hands and feet stained in form of roses, and various figures, and the dye made of a very dark green⁠[458]. This however, after some days, begins to change, and at last looks as nasty as the other.

The women in some of the villages, and all the Arabs and Chinganas⁠[459], wear a large silver or gold ring through the external cartilage of their right nostril. I have seen some of at least an inch and an half diameter. It is usual for these people likewise, by way of ornament, to mark their under-lip, and sometimes their breasts and arms with a blue colour. This is done by pricking the part all over with a needle, and then rubbing it with a certain powder, which leaves a distinct and indelible mark, like that which one so often sees among the sailors and common people in England.

With respect to the people in general, these remarks may be sufficient. But as, in their manner of living, the Turks differ from the Christians, and the Jews from both, it may not be improper to take a view of each.

To begin with the Turks, who are the most numerous; such as can afford, and dare show it, live well, and are far from being the abstemious people that many imagine them to be. As soon as they get up in the morning, they breakfast on fried eggs, cheese, honey, leban, &c. About eleven o’clock in the forenoon in winter, and rather earlier in summer, they dine. Their table is round, and as well as their dishes, is made either of copper tinned, or for bashaws, and other persons of high distinction, of silver. It is placed upon a stool about a foot or fourteen inches high. A piece of red cloth, cut in a round form, is spread upon the divan under the table, to prevent that from being soiled; and a long piece of silk-stuff is laid round, to cover the knees of such as sit at the table, which has no covering but the victuals. Pickles, sallads, small basons of leban, bread, and spoons, are disposed in proper order round the edges. The middle is for the dishes, which (among the great people) are brought in one by one; and, after each person has ate a little, they are changed. Their fingers serve them for knives and forks; but for liquids they are obliged to have spoons, which are made of wood, horn, or tortoise-shell, for silver or gold is not permitted them for that purpose by their religion. The first dish is generally a sort of broth, or soup⁠[460], and the last pilaw. The intermediate dishes, which, generally speaking, are numerous, consist of mutton cut into small pieces, and roasted⁠[461], or stewed with herbs and cicers⁠[462]; stewed pigeons, fowls, or other birds, which are commonly stuffed with rice and spices. A whole lamb, stuffed with rice, almonds, raisins, pistaches, &c. and stewed, is a favourite dish with them⁠[463]. Rice, and minced meat, wrapped up in vine-leaves⁠[464], beet, endive, borrage, &c. or stuffed into cucumbers⁠[465], mad apples⁠[466] (badinjans), gourds, quinces, &c. and stewed, they are very fond of, and call mahshee, in Turkish dolmah, with the name of the enveloping vegetable added, as badinjan mahshee, &c. Pastry, both with meat, and of the sweet or fruit kind, they would make very well, if the badness of their butter did not spoil them. A large pilaw, with a dish of sweet starch⁠[467], which they sometimes eat with it, comes last, excepting the khushaf; which is a very thin syrup, with currans, raisins, dried apricots, pistaches, slices of pears, apples, or the like, swimming in it; and of this each person takes a large spoonful, with spoons brought in with it on purpose, and finishes the repast. Water is their liquor at table, and after dinner they drink coffee. Almost all their dishes are either greasy with fat, or butter pretty high-seasoned with salt and spices; many of them made sour with verjuice, pomegranate, or lemon-juice; and onions and garlick often complete the seasoning.

They sup early, that is, about five o’clock in the winter, and six in the summer, in much the same manner that they dine; and in winter, as they often visit one another, and sit up late, they have a collation of kennafy⁠[468], or other sweet dishes.

In the summer their breakfast commonly consists of fruits; and, besides dinner and supper, they often, within the compass of the day, eat water-melons, cucumbers, and other fruits, according to the season.

It is to be observed, that they are not so regular in their times of eating as the Europeans: and though it should happen that they are but just rose from table, they cannot withstand the invitation of another company, but sit down and eat again with them.

The common people have no such variety as has been before described. Bread, dibbs, leban, butter, rice, and a very little mutton, make the chief of their food in the winter; as rice, bread, cheese, and fruits, do in the summer. Their principal meal is in the evening, when they return to their families from the exercise of their respective occupations.

Through the whole of the month of Ramadan⁠[469], they fast from the dawn of day till sunset, and do not either eat or smoke: but, as soon as the sun is down, they eat a hearty meal; and, such as can afford to sleep in the day, keep eating and drinking the greatest part of the night, living more luxuriously than at other times, and generally spending as much money in that one, as in any other two months in the year: but the poor labourers, or those whose business calls them abroad in the day, suffer a great deal during this fast, more especially when it happens in the summer.

Though wine and spirits are only drank by the irreligious and licentious among the Turks, yet the number of these is more than what from appearance one would apprehend: for as these liquors are prohibited by their religion, they chiefly drink in secret at their gardens, or privately in the night; and, if they once begin, they generally drink to great excess whenever they can come at liquor.

By their religion they are obliged to wash before their prayers, which are five times in the twenty-four hours⁠[470], and also every time they ease nature. As they eat chiefly with their fingers, they are likewise under a necessity to wash after every meal, and the more cleanly do it before meals also. Besides, every time they cohabit with their women, they must go to the bagnio before they can say their prayers; so that they are almost all day long dabbling in water.

Though by law, or rather from an implied toleration⁠[471], they are allowed four wives, and as many concubines, or more properly female-slaves, as they can or care to maintain; yet as they are obliged to pay money for their wives, few of any rank have more than two; the poorer sort have seldom more than one, and hardly ever a concubine. Those of middling circumstances rarely exceed three or four; though some I have known, of greater opulence, have kept forty, exclusive of those employed in the menial offices of the family. It may appear strange how such a number should agree tolerably well together; and in fact the master of the family hath very frequently enough to do to keep the peace among them. But if we consider, that they are accustomed from their infancy to a servile obedience, that the husband can at pleasure divorce his wife without assigning any cause, and sell such of his slaves as he has had no children by, it will not appear so extraordinary that they live together in a tolerable degree of harmony. On the other hand, the wife has also a check upon him; for if he divorces his wife, it is attended with expence, as he must not only lose all the money she at first cost him, but there is generally a sum equal to that stipulated by the contract, to be paid in case he should at any time divorce her.

In this country marriages are commonly brought about by the ladies: and the mothers, in order to find out a proper wife for their sons, take all opportunities of introducing themselves into company where they expect to have a sight of a young woman who may be disengaged; and, when they have met with one they think will be agreeable, they propose to the mother a match between her and the young man. This puts the family upon enquiring into his character and circumstances; and, if matters are likely to be adjusted, she is formally demanded of her parents by the father, the price is fixed that he is to pay for her, and a licence is procured from the kadè, for such a person to marry such a woman: each of the young folks then appoint a proxy, who meet with the imaum, and several of the male relations; and, after witnesses have been examined to prove those are the proxies regularly appointed, he asks the one, If he is willing to buy the bride for such a sum of money? and the other, If he is satisfied with the sum? To which having received answers in the affirmative, he joins their hands; and the money being paid, the bargain is concluded with a prayer out of the Koran.

The bridegroom is at liberty after this to take his bride home whenever he thinks proper; and the day being fixed, he sends a message to her family, acquainting them with it. The money which he paid for her, is laid out in furniture for one chamber, and cloaths and jewels, or gold ornaments for the bride, whose father makes some addition, according to his circumstances, which are sent with great pomp to the bridegroom’s house three days before the wedding. He invites, at the same time, all his friends and acquaintance, and, if a man in power, a great many others, for all who are invited send presents, whether they think proper to go or not. Rejoicings are made, and a sort of open house, is kept for several days preceding the wedding. The women, on the day appointed, go from the bridegroom’s to the bride’s house, and bring her home to his, accompanied by her mother, and other female relations, where each sex make merry in separate apartments till night. The men then dress the bridegroom, and give notice to the women; upon which he is introduced into the court-yard of the womens apartment, and there met by his own female relations, who dance and sing before him to the stair’s foot of the bride’s apartment, who is brought half way down stairs to receive him, being veil’d with a piece of red gause, and often, if young, especially her forehead and cheeks covered with leaf-gold, cut into various forms. When he has conducted her up stairs, they are left to themselves⁠[472].

They have a few black slaves, which are commonly brought from Æthiopia, by way of Cairo; but the greater part of their slaves are white, being mostly furnished from Georgia, or such as are taken in war; and the beauty of a male-slave enhances the value as much as it does that of a female, occasioned by the frequency among them of a crime not to be named. When I mention their slaves, it will not be amiss to observe, that they are generally very well treated, and, provided they behave as they ought, very often marry their masters daughters, and inherit their whole fortunes.

The Turks of Aleppo being very jealous, keep their women as much at home as they can; so that it is but seldom they are allowed to visit each other. Necessity however obliges the husband to suffer them to go often to the bagnio, and Mondays and Thursdays are a sort of licenced days for them to visit the tombs of their deceased relations; which furnishing them with an opportunity of walking abroad in the gardens or fields, they have so contrived, that almost every Thursday in the spring bears the name of some particular sheih⁠[473], whose tomb they must visit on that day. By this means the greatest part of the Turkish women of the city get abroad to breathe the fresh air at such seasons, unless confined (as is not uncommon) to their houses by order of the bashaw, and so deprived even of that little freedom which custom had procured them from their husbands. When the women go abroad, they wear white veils, so managed that nothing appears but their eyes, and a small part of the nose. They are usually in large companies, and have always either an old woman or a young lad for a guard.

The haram, or women’s apartment, among the people of fashion, is guarded by a black eunuch, or young boy. And though necessity obliges many of the inferior people to trust their wives out of doors, yet some are locked up till the husbands return; so that the utmost care in that way is taken among them to prevent a breach of the marriage-vow. But where there are no ties of love or virtue, one may easily conceive that others prove ineffectual; and how far affection has place among them, may be guessed from what has been already mentioned in regard to choice: or at least when to this is added, that it is a kind of reproach among them to be thought fond of their women, or to shew them much tenderness or respect; the best of them being only treated as upper servants, and often abused and drove about by the very eunuchs or boys bought or hired to look after them.

When a Turk dies, the women immediately fall a shrieking, (a practice followed by all the natives) and continue so to do till the body is buried; which however is dispatched as soon as possible, for they never keep it longer than is absolutely necessary for acquainting the relations who live in town. The first thing done is to wash the corpse upon a large table, which every hara⁠[474] has for this purpose: they next stop all the natural passages with cotton, to prevent any moisture from oozing out, as this would render the body unclean; then wrapping it up in a clean cotton-cloth, they lay it in a kind of coffin, much in the form of ours, only that the lid rises with a ledge in the middle, and at the head there is a wooden battoon, about a foot long, that stands up, on which the proper head-dress of the deceased is placed, if a man; but if a woman, it is not her head-dress, but an old-fashioned one, flat on top like a trencher, and over it is thrown a handkerchief. The middle part of the pall is composed of a small piece of the old covering of the holy house at Mecca, the rest of it being of no particular colour or stuff. Over the pall are laid some of the deceased’s best cloaths.

When the corpse is carried out, a number of sheihs, with their tattered banners, walk first, next come the male-friends, and after them the corpse, carried with the head foremost, upon mens shoulders. The bearers are relieved very often, for every passenger thinks it meritorious to lend some little help on such solemn occasions. The nearest male-relations immediately follow, and the women close the procession with dreadful shrieks, while the men all the way are singing prayers out of the Koran. Thus they proceed to a mosque; where the bier is set down in the court-yard, and a service said by the imaum: after which it is carried on in the same order as before to the burying-place; of which there is but one that is public within the city, the others being all abroad in the fields.

The graves lie east and west, and are lined with stone. The corpse is taken out of the bier, and put in a posture between sitting and lying on the right-side, with the head to the westward, so that the face may be to the south, that is, towards Mecca; a small portion of earth being put behind the body to keep it steady, the grave is covered with long stones, which go across, and prevent the earth they put over from falling in upon the corpse. The imaum throws on the first handful of earth, saying at the same time a prayer for the soul of the deceased⁠[475], and exhorting such as hear him to be mindful of their end. After him every one present throws also a handful of earth, saying, God be merciful unto the deceased person. This done, the grave is filled up. At each end of their graves is set up a stone, upon which are commonly wrote some prayers, and the name of the person there interred. Some have the upper part of the head-stone cut into the form of turbant for a man, or an old-fashioned sort of head-dress if a woman; and as they never open the old graves in less than seven years, or seldom so soon, their cemetaries occupy a very considerable space round the city.

The nearest relations go to pray at the grave on the third, seventh, and fortieth days, as also that day twelve-month, after the person’s decease; and on every one of those days a quantity of victuals is dressed, and given to the poor. The women go to the tomb every Monday or Thursday, and carry some flowers or green leaves to dress it with. They make a great shew of grief, often expostulating heavily with the dead person, “Why he should leave them, when they had done every thing in their power to make life agreeable to him?” This, however, by the men is looked upon as a kind of impiety; and, if over-heard, they are chid severely for it: and I must say the men generally set them a good example in this respect, by a patient acquiescence in the loss of their nearest relations, and indeed shew a firm and steady fortitude under every other kind of misfortune.

The men wear no mourning; but the women put on their gravest-coloured cloaths, and the head-dress is of a dark brick-dust colour. They also lay aside their jewels, and other pieces of female finery, for the space of twelve months, if they mourn for their husband, and six months if for their father. These periods, however, they do not observe very strictly. But before the widow marries again, she must mourn forty days for her deceased husband, without going out of the house, or speaking to any person more than what is absolutely necessary; and this prohibition extends even to her nearest relations. This term of forty days does not commence from the demise or burial; but, on the contrary, is rarely observed till several months after.

It would not only be foreign to my present purpose, but also superfluous, to mention any thing particular, either in respect to their religion or government, especially as the reader may have recourse to such pieces as expressly treat of these subjects. I shall only say in regard to the first, that they are very exact observers of their times of prayer, and other exterior forms; but practise very little the other duties enjoined by it, if you except giving alms to the poor, (of whom there are great numbers in Aleppo) and hospitality to strangers; which last they practise in a very eminent degree. I remember once, in conversation with the muftee, who is a jocose old man, he told me that he had a favour to beg of me, which was, that, when I returned to England, I would not misrepresent the Mohammedan faith, by giving an account of it from what I had seen in the practice of the Moslems. But, says he, if you will take just the reverse of what you see daily practised by us, you will be pretty near the truth. I shall not however take the liberty to say that they are quite so bad as he represented them.

Their military governors, as vizir-bashaws, &c. are not now composed of slaves, or sons of Christians, as they were formerly; but are either favourites of the Grand Signor, or such as will purchase their places at the highest rate, for the best bidder generally carries it; and as they pay large sums to the Port, and the legal income of their government is not sufficient for a quarter of their expences, they are suffered to fleece the people: and though they make some false pretence for it, and often have the cause formally tried before the kady; yet the veil is so thin, that it evidently appears, that sic volo sic jubeo is the only plea for seizing a man’s whole fortune, and sometimes depriving him of life also. However, they are far from being so cruel as they were formerly.

As to their civil magistrates, or kadys, money goes a great way with them in their determination of lawsuits, and witnesses may be always had for a trifle to prove any thing that is desired. However, there is one good thing, that ought not to be forgot, which is, their quick decision of the causes that come before them. It ought likewise to be mentioned in their praise, that they will commonly accept of less money to determine a suit in favour of the person who has right on his side, than of him who is in the wrong. The expence of a suit, which is 10 per cent. upon the sum demanded, is paid to the judge by the person who carries his cause; which is one great encouragement to bad men to make false demands on such as they are at enmity with, as it costs them nothing, and the innocent man must pay, and that too in proportion to the weight of the injury intended him. Some kadys, however, when the thing is very apparent, accept of a smaller sum than they are intitled to; but the false accuser is never punished.

The common punishment for slight offences is beating the soles of the feet with small sticks; and sometimes, when they would punish more severely, they beat also the back and buttocks; which last is the way in which they chastise the Janizaries and women.

For capital crimes, if the offender is a Janizary, he is strangled; not in the way generally imagined, but by putting a cord twice round their neck, and with a piece of stick twisting it in the nature of a tournequet. Other criminals are hanged, beheaded, or impaled, according to the caprice of the bashaw. After all their executions, the body remains exposed for at least three suns.

It is a mistaken notion, that such as have been at Mecca may commit crimes with impunity, since, according to their law, they cannot be put to death. Their being hadgys doth not intitle them to any privilege of that nature; and, even on the road to and from Mecca, such of the pilgrims as commit crimes are punished as in other places; there being not only a bashaw, but a kady, in the caravan on purpose to try them; and numbers are executed every year on their journey, as well returning as on the road thither.

The Emeers, or relations of Mohammed, distinguished by a green sash round their heads, instead of the white wore by the other Moslems, have indeed a privilege of being tried and punished by the Nakeeb, an Effendy appointed on purpose to preside over them. However, the bashaws, when they please, break through this custom. They have a much greater benefit, by their being exempted from paying any part of the expences of the city; which, since the great decrease of trade from the disturbances in Persia, and the ruin of many of the villages by their own bad government, falls very heavy upon the people; for they are daily less able to pay, and the demands of the governors rather encrease. The Christians, by the contentions between such as have become Roman Catholics, and others that remain of the old churches, furnish the governors with numerous pretences of extorting large sums of money from them; so that it is not extraordinary that their ruin should be the farthest advanced.

The Christians, except in their Lent or fast-days, eat much in the same manner as the Turks; only we must observe, that they do not introduce either the shorba or pilaw so frequently at their tables. They eat more burgle⁠[476], and less rice, and frequently use oil where the Turks use butter. The Turkish hushaf is supplied by wine or spirits; of which many of them drink pretty liberally.

On their fast-days, the number of which is very considerable⁠[477], their chief subsistence is a few pot-herbs, roots, and pulse, dressed with oil, which is seldom good. Fish is not always to be had, nor allowed by the greatest part of them in their great Lent before Easter. Pickled green olives, or black (ripe) ones salted, make a considerable part of their food at such times.

In keeping their fasts, they are generally very exact, or rather rigorous. However, if a physician declares their life to be in danger, the Greeks, Syrians, and Maronites, will often break their fast; but the Armenians are for the most part so very strict, that not even the preservation of life is sufficient to prevail with them to interrupt it so much as for a day. Most of them (Armenians) in the great Lent do not so much as eat oil.

The Christian women are as closely veiled, though in a different manner, as Turkish women are, when they go abroad, which the better sort seldom do but to church, the bagnio, their physicians, or now and then to visit a relation. Some few of them permit their wives, perhaps twice or thrice a-year, to go to the gardens; and others, though the gardens are not a mile from their house, never saw one in their lives.

Most of them are contracted while children by their parents. There being nothing very material in the ceremonies of the different sects, I shall give the description of a Maronite wedding, which will serve as a specimen of all the rest.

After the bride has been demanded, the relations of the bridegroom are invited to an entertainment at the house of the bride’s father, in order to consult with her relations (for the young folks themselves have no vote in such affairs, nor are ever seen) concerning the proper day for celebrating the wedding; and it is almost always agreed on for that day fortnight. On the appointed day, in the afternoon, they again go to the bride’s house; and, having supped there, return to that of the bridegroom, who hitherto has not appeared, though some little enquiry has been made after him; for he is by custom obliged to hide himself, or at least is not to be found without a seemingly strict search. When he is brought out, dressed in his worst cloaths, great noise and rejoicings are then made on the finding him; and he and the bride’s man, after being led several times round the court yard in a noisy procession, are carried into a room, where their wedding-cloaths are laid out in form. A priest says a long prayer over them; and, being dressed, they are led back into the court-yard with the same ceremony as before.

At midnight, or a few hours later, the relations, accompanied by all that have been invited to the wedding, men and women, return once more to the house where the bride is, in procession, each carrying a candle, and music playing before them. When they come to the door, it is shut upon them; and when they knock, and demand the bride, they are refused admittance. Upon this ensues a mock-fight, but the bridegroom’s party always prevails. The women then go to the bride’s chamber, lead her out veiled quite over, and in the like procession carry her to the bridegroom’s; but not more than one or two of her sisters, or nearest female-relations, must accompany her. She is there set down at the upper end of the room among the women, continues veiled with a red gause; and must sit like a statue, neither moving nor speaking on any account, except rising to every person that comes into the room, which is notified to her by one of the women who sits by her constantly, for she must not open her eyes. The rest of the night is spent by each sex in their separate apartments in noisy mirth, eating fruits and sweet-meats, there being no want of wine and arrack. Some few retire to rest.

The next day, about nine in the morning, the bishop or priest comes to perform the ceremony. Before he enters the womens apartment, all the women are veiled. The bride stands covered entirely, and supported by two women, the bride’s maid standing by to keep the veil well adjusted. The bridegroom is dressed in a gaudy robe, and, going in with the bishop, is placed on the bride’s left-hand, with his bride’s man by him. After a short service, the bishop puts a crown, first on the bridegroom’s head; after which the bride, bride’s man and maid, are crowned in the same manner. He next joins the hands of the bride and bridegroom; and, after some longer service, puts a ring on the bridegroom’s finger, and delivers another to the bride’s maid to be put upon that of the bride. Near the conclusion of the service, he ties round the bridegroom’s neck a piece of tape or ribbon; to take off which a priest comes in the afternoon. The ceremony being finished, the bridegroom, and all the men, retire again to their proper apartment, where they drink coffee, and sit very gravely while the bishop remains, which is not long; for dinner being served up immediately for him, and a few select people of the company, he soon dines, and takes his leave; and he is scarcely gone a few yards from the house, before their noisy mirth begins. Great quantities of victuals are dressed, and several tables covered, both for dinner and supper; and there is usually a profusion of tobacco, coffee, wine, and arrack.

About eleven or twelve at night, the bridegroom is led in procession to the bride’s chamber, where he presents her with a glass of wine, in which she drinks to him, and he returns the compliment: after this he is carried back again with the same ceremony.

The music, during the whole of the time, continues to play, buffoons and other of their diversions are going forward, and the house is usually full of company till next day in the afternoon, when they take their leave, all but a few intimate friends, who sup with the bridegroom, and about midnight leave him heartily fatigued to retire to the bride’s chamber.

All those that have been invited to the wedding send presents; and, for several days after the marriage is consummated, quantities of flowers are sent to the bride by all the women of their acquaintance.

On that day seven-night the wedding was celebrated, the bride’s relations are allowed to come and visit her, and an entertainment is provided for them.

It is not reputed decent, in this country, for a bride to speak to any person for at least a month (the Armenians extend this to a year), excepting a few words to her husband; and there is generally a very strict charge given them by the old women about this, and particularly not to talk to him too soon.

Few women are allowed to sit at table with their husbands, but wait upon them as servants; and in general they are not much better treated than I have described those of the Turks to be. Though they have no guards upon their apartments, yet the people of fashion are never suffered to appear unveiled before men, except they are their servants, near relations, priests, or physicians. The Maronites are the least strict in this respect; and some of them will appear before particular strangers, and are even admitted to sit at table with their husbands. Their confinement, however, does not proceed from jealousy in respect to their conduct, so much as from the fear of bad consequences, should a Turk see and take a liking to any of them.

The Christians are carried to the grave on an open bier; and besides many appointed days, when the relations go to the sepulchre, and have mass said, and send victuals to the church and poor, many of the women go every day for the first year, and every great holiday afterwards.

The Jews have their synagogue within the city, in Bahsyta, near Garden-Gate, and they live all in that quarter. Many of their houses are upon the city-wall; and the ditch being there turned into gardens, makes their situation agreeable, but not so healthy. The houses of other Jews have their court-yards mostly several feet below the level of the street; which, with the natural nastiness of the people, contributes towards rendering their dwellings very offensive.

As most of their time during their festivals is employed in the exercise of their religion, on the greatest part of them, they cannot dress victuals; and as it is not lawful for them to eat or drink but of such things as have been managed in a different way from what they find among the Christians or Turks, they have no great opportunities of committing excesses; so that they may with justice be pronounced the most abstemious people in Aleppo.

It having been agreed, for the benefit of the poor of this religion, that meat shall be sold amongst them at an under-price, and the deficiency made good out of the public stock, the managers take care that their markets shall be very ill supplied, so that sometimes they are for several days without a bit of mutton. This is the reason why they eat more poultry, and the poorer sort chiefly herbs, roots, and pulse, dressed with oil expressed from the sesamum, than most other people.

Six days⁠[478] in the year they fast from about two hours before sunset, till the next evening after the sun is down. All of them attempt once in their lives to fast from Saturday night at sunset, till the Friday following at the same hour. Some hold out two, some three, others four days, and a few complete it; but there are several who perish in the attempt.

Except the particular ceremonies which their religion obliges them to observe, it would be only repeating a great deal of what has been already said to give an account of their weddings. Amongst the latter, the most remarkable is, that the bride’s eye-lids are fastened together with gum; and, if I remember right, the bridegroom is the person that opens them at an appointed time.

Their dead are carried to the grave on a covered bier. They have certain days, wherein they go to the sepulchres; and the women, like those of other sects, often go there to howl and cry over their dead relations.

The Europeans, or Franks⁠[479] (as they are generally called), residing in Aleppo, are chiefly English and French; of the former at present⁠[480], besides the consul, chaplain, cancellier, or chancellor, physician, and cheaux⁠[481], there are ten merchants. The French have a consul, and other officers, as mentioned, and their druggomen⁠[482] are likewise of their own nation. The number of those in quality of merchants and clerks is nigh double that of the English. Besides which they have many of a lower class, who are married to natives of the country, or others of a mixed race: the number of whom in the Levant was become so considerable, and likely to be so troublesome, that the French King, not many years ago, issued an edict, ordering all such as were married to return home, and prohibiting any others from marrying without his licence, which has greatly diminished their number. Under the French protection are likewise the Roman Catholic convents, of which there are in the city no less than three⁠[483], and a college of Jesuits. The Dutch have a consul residing here, but no other person of that country. There are also a few Venetian merchants, and some Italian Jews.

The major part of the Europeans live in khanes in the principal quarter of the city. The ground-floor serves for their warehouses, the upper story is fitted up for their dwellings, by building between the pillars of the colonade, which forms a long corridore; opening on which are a number of rooms, so that they much resemble cloisters; and as they are unmarried, and their communication with the people of the country is almost solely on account of trade, their way of life also not a little resembles the monastic. It was formerly customary for all, or most of them, to wear the Turkish habit, retaining only the hat and wig by way of distinction; but of late years the far greater part have continued in their proper dress.

The Italian Jews, who are mostly married, and such of the French above mentioned as have families, must be excepted, as they have houses after the manner of the natives, and conform more to their customs than the other Europeans.

As to provisions, it has been already mentioned what the place affords, and those are dressed after the European manner. The evening being the chief time of entertaining their friends, they eat more animal food for supper than is customary in Britain. In respect to drink they are exceeding moderate: their common draught at table is a dry white wine, and Provence red wine. In summer, the English generally before dinner and supper drink a draught of weak punch; which is found so very refreshing, that now the greater part of the other Europeans, several of the Christians (and I might add some Turks), follow their example.

All the English, and some of the others, keep horses, and ride out for an hour or two of an afternoon three or four times a-week. On Saturdays, and often on Wednesday likewise, they dine abroad under a tent in the spring and autumn, and during the good weather in the winter; the month of April, and part of May, they generally live at the gardens near Baballah; and in the heat of summer, in the room of the tent, they dine at the gardens. Such as love hunting or hawking, usually go abroad twice a-week, after the second rains, till the weather grows too warm in the spring; and there is game for such as love shooting at the same seasons, as also plenty of quails spring and autumn.

From the above account it would appear that the English in particular use a good deal of exercise: but it ought to be considered, that, if we except a little walk in an evening on the house-top, what has been mentioned is the whole they take; the greatest part of their time besides being spent in the compting-house, or in reading; so that they are rather sedentary than active.

Though, from what has been said of the people of this country in general, their character may not appear the most amiable; yet the Europeans have no reason to complain of their behaviour. Their capitulations with the Port prevents their being any way subject to the oppressions of the government; and the bashaws, and the people of distinction, usually treating the consuls with civility and respect, others of course follow their example; so that we live among them in great security in the city, and can travel abroad unmolested by Arabs or Curds, where the natives dare not venture, though defended by a much greater force. This is owing partly to a small annual present sent to the Prince of the Arabs, and the civil treatment that the Curds sometimes meet with at Scanderoon, and partly to our travelling with no more money than what is absolutely necessary for our expences; so that they would get but little by us. And besides, an insult of this nature would be made a pretence by the Turkish government for chastising them severely: whereas, if they rob a native, they generally, in money and horse-furniture, find a good booty; and, unless he happens to be a person in power, he dares not complain, as he would run the risk of being fleeced of as much more by the very person who should procure him redress.

The epidemic diseases which prevail most in Aleppo, are continual fevers, various species of intermittents and remittents, dysenteries, catarrhal fevers, quinsies, rheumatisms, pleurisies, and peripneumonies; to which may be added the plague. During the extreme heats an anomalous fever, sometimes with, at others without a diarrhœa or dysentery, is exceeding frequent among very young children; and in August and September the ophthalmia, which is not very rare, even in other months, is so common that in most years at least one sixth of the inhabitants are more or less afflicted with it⁠[484].

Though the continual fevers of the spring are often attended with worse symptoms, in appearance, than those of the autumn, yet in general they are not so dangerous. The former discover themselves sometimes about the beginning of January, though more frequently about the vernal equinox, and disappear in June: the latter sometimes begin in June, but more commonly in July; by the autumnal equinox they come to their height, and generally go off by the beginning of December. The intermittents and dysenteries commence and finish exactly at the same seasons as the autumnal continual fever, and the spring intermittents follow the course of the continual fever of that season.

General inflammatory fevers, catarrhal fevers, rheumatisms, quinsies, pleurisies, and peripneumonies, make their appearance in the months of December, January, February, March, and sometimes April; but they are seldom either frequent or remarkably violent.

If we set aside the ophthalmia, there are none of the above diseases more acute than they are commonly in Britain; nor can I say more frequent, except the plague, of which hereafter, and certain malignant, remittent, and intermittent fevers, that sometimes break out with great vehemence; but this is only in particular years, or in such towns and villages as are situated near stagnant waters, whether naturally marshes, or that, for the benefit of the silk-gardens, they lay them under water by art: and the bad effects of such situations is evident even in Aleppo, where those who inhabit the houses on the fosse of the town, now turned into gardens, are always most subject to intermittents.

The Europeans are but very seldom affected by any epidemics. This perhaps may in part be owing to their not conversing much with, the natives, and so keeping out of the way of the contagion, of which most of those diseases partake in a greater or less degree; partly to their living above stairs, and not in the cool and damp air, which the fountains in their little courts and gardens occasion; and partly likewise, because the Europeans do not indulge themselves so freely as the natives in the use of crude and indigestible fruits. That these circumstances strongly co-operate towards their preservation, may also be inferred from hence, that the European priests, who mix much with the natives, and those Europeans who are married, and have houses in the country-manner, are as subject to the attacks of every reigning epidemic as the natives themselves. It must be likewise observed, that when a disease seizes any one of the different sorts of people who reside here, its symptoms and progress are exactly the same in all, whether European, Turk, Jew, or native Christian: but it must be at the same time remarked, that, in treating the sick, regard must be had to their very different method of living; for those who are accustomed to drink nothing stronger than water or coffee, will not bear so warm a regimen, as those, who are accustomed to fermented and spirituous liquors.

The generality of fevers here, though of the continual kind, and indeed almost all acute diseases in this place, are subject to exacerbations once or twice in twenty-four hours, which are usually accompanied by a flushing in one or both cheeks, and the critical days and evacuations agree much better with the account given of them by the ancients than they are observed to do in Britain: but I could never discover the truth of Dr. Brown’s remark⁠[485], That “as to fevers at and about Aleppo, though they have the same type there as in England, yet there are two things peculiar to them; one is, that in acute fevers cold sweat commonly signifies recovery, but hot sweat portends death; the other is, that in such acute fevers even an intermittent pulse denounces no danger.” Perhaps this might have been peculiar to some epidemic that prevailed at the time the Doctor was at Aleppo; but, during all the time I resided there, I am certain that both the one and the other have been as dangerous symptoms in Aleppo as any where else. And probably he may have been led into a mistake by the common expression of the natives, who give the appellation of a cold sweat to such a critical one, as having carried off the fever, leaves the body cool, and of course the sweat that remains upon it feels cool: whereas, what they call a hot sweat, is such as often happens in fevers without any abatement of the symptoms, so that both the body and sweat remain hot; and such sort of sweats are bad symptoms, as often in other places as in Aleppo.

The Europeans, particularly the English, are subject, soon after their arrival, to a very violent fever; which however seldom lasts above twenty-four hours. This, from what cause I know not, has got the name of the goose. It is necessary to bleed largely in this fever, and the most prudent way is to purge the patient once or twice at proper intervals after the disease is removed. When they have remained any time at Scanderoon, they are often seized with tertian agues soon after they arrive at Aleppo, which is also common to the natives that live upon the coast, though they have been well while they continued there, and the disease not at all epidemic in the city. If it is in the winter, or spring, these fevers are commonly regularly formed, and easily cured; but in the autumn they are of a very bad kind, and, if the bark is not soon given, are not a little dangerous. The ingenious Mr. Cleghorn’s account of the tertians of Minorca answers exactly to those of Cyprus, Scanderoon, the coast of Syria, and what some years happen at Aleppo; and a long course of experience has convinced me that his method of cure is the safest, as well as the most successful.

The Christians, from the great quantity of oil they eat in their Lent, and that too mostly burnt, as frying is their favourite manner of dressing that kind of victuals, are at such seasons subject to a feverish disorder, attended with a cough. The skin over the whole body feels hot, parched, and dry; but it is most violent in the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. They wheez much in breathing, and labour by coughing to expectorate, but without effect. Bleeding, a gentle laxative, with the plentiful use of pectoral and saponaceous diluters, soon remove their complaints.

The mal d’Aleppo, of which a more particular account shall be given hereafter, is a disease that may properly be called here endemial. Of sporaides, the following are the most frequent, viz. Almost all the diseases that the eyes are subject to, which are many of them the consequences of the ophthalmia. Obstructions of the abdominal viscera, often the consequences of acute diseases, and to which also they are much subjected by the nature of their aliment, want of exercise, method of fitting, and also in the men their large and tight-bound girdles. Ruptures and hæmorrhoids, which they are much afflicted with, seem to owe their origin to some of the same causes. The tinea seems occasioned from nastiness, as they seldom so much as uncover either their children or grown people’s heads but in the bagnio; and worms, one kind or other of which scarce one person, either young or old, are free from, seem also to take their rise from the nature of their aliment. The leprosy is now exceeding rare in these countries, but scorbutic eruptions and putrid gums very common. Notwithstanding their jealousy and strict watch over their women, the venereal disease is very frequent amongst them. As they have no idea of a gonorrhœa different from what is mentioned in their own authors, they neither conceive it to be infectious, nor to be in danger of ending in a worse disease. The consequence of the first is, the spreading of the infection; and of the last, that it often terminates in a pox. When this appears, it is called Frank zahmedy, or the Frank disease, probably from their having it first from Europe; and they are then much alarmed: and though they imagine this to be infectious, yet are more apt to attribute it to their having smoked out of the same pipe, or ate out of the same spoon, &c. with a person infected, than to any other cause. As the natives know very little of the use of mercury, numbers of them labour under the disease great part of their lives, and some without any very considerable uneasiness; the warmth of the climate, and frequent use of the bagnio, may perhaps conduce towards preventing its making a very quick progress.

Such persons as have any tendency to a phthisis pulmonalis should avoid the air of Aleppo, for it is seldom that any afflicted with that disease outlives a few months, if they do not leave the place.

Besides these diseases already mentioned, all others known in Britain are to be met with at Aleppo, and nearly in the same proportion, except the gout, which is rare amongst them, and mostly hereditary.