CONTENTS

PAGE
PART I
THE LEGEND OF THE NOCTURNAL JOURNEY AND ASCENSION OF MAHOMET COMPARED WITH THE DIVINE COMEDY
I. The Origin of the Legend:
1. The germ of the legend in the Koran 3
2. Its development in the form of various versions grouped into three cycles 3
II. First Cycle—Versions of the “Isra,” or Nocturnal Journey:
1. Common character of the two main versions of this cycle 4
2. Summary of Version A of Cycle I 4
3. Its comparison with the Divine Comedy. Agreement in general outline 5
4. Similarity of descriptive features 6
5. Summary of Version B of Cycle I 6
6. Its comparison with the Divine Comedy. General features of resemblance 8
7. Analogies in descriptive detail 8
III. Second Cycle—Versions of the “Miraj,” or Ascension:
1. Features common to the three versions of this cycle 9
2. Date and author of each version 9
3. Summary of Version A of Cycle II 10
4. Its comparison with the Divine Comedy. Coincidence with outlines of Dante’s ascension 11
5. Version B. First attempt to link the journey to hell with the ascension to heaven 12
6. Summary of Version B of Cycle II 12
7. Its comparison with the Divine Comedy 14
8. The architecture of hell the prototype of that of the Inferno 14
9. In both stories the guardians of hell bar the pilgrim’s way 15
10. The City of Dis and the first stage of the Moslem hell 16
11. Resemblance of some of the tortures of hell 17
12. Version C. The Ascension the main theme of this version 17
13. Summary of Version C of Cycle II 18
14. Its comparison with the Divine Comedy. Preliminary remarks 24
15. The description of heaven in terms of light and sound is as spiritual as the Paradiso 25
16. Similarity in use of expedient: the comparison of the speed of flight, the inability to describe the sights witnessed, and the brilliance of the light dazzling the pilgrims 26
17. Identical services rendered by the guides, Gabriel and Beatrice 28
18. Dante’s picture of the eagle inspired by the vision of the heavenly cock. Other angelic visions 29
19. The littleness of the created world as seen by both pilgrims from on high 30
20. Striking likeness of the apotheoses of both ascensions. God a focus of light, surrounded by nine concentric circles of angels radiating light and chanting as they revolve. The Beatific Vision and ecstasy 31
IV. Third Cycle—Fusion of the Versions of the “Isra” and the “Miraj”:
1. Nature and date of the one version of this cycle 32
2. Summary of Sole Version of Cycle III 33
3. Its comparison with the Divine Comedy. A preliminary remark 35
4. The element of moral allegory in this version and in Dante 35
5. The vision, in the Moslem legend and the Purgatorio, of the old seductress, symbolic of worldly pleasure 36
6. Threefold cleansing of the soul, in the Garden of Abraham and the Purgatorio 37
V. Theological Commentaries on the Legend:
1. The Version of Cycle III expanded by theological commentaries. Their origin and nature 38
2. New episodes in the commentaries, and their comparison with the Divine Comedy 40
3. The afrite pursuing Mahomet and the demon pursuing Dante 40
4. The heavenly ladder in the Islamic tale and in the Paradiso 41
5. Analogy in wealth of incident and profusion of secondary characters 41
VI. Adaptations from the Legend, Mainly Mystical Allegories:
1. Origin and nature of such works 42
2. General idea of some adaptations 43
3. The ascension of the soul upon leaving the body 43
4. The ascension of the guardian angel with the good deeds of his ward 44
5. The real or symbolical ascension of the mystic 44
6. Ibn Arabi’s “Book of the Nocturnal Journey” and its analogy with the Divine Comedy regarded as a work of allegory 45
7. Ibn Arabi’s allegorical ascension of the philosopher and the theologian. Summary of the ascension 47
8. Its comparison with the Divine Comedy. Agreement in allegorical meaning 51
9. Resemblance in episode, such as the distribution of the Blessed on an astrological and moral principle; in the didactic tendency of both authors; and in their enigmatical style 52
VII. Literary Imitations of the Legend:
1. General nature of such works 54
2. The “Treatise on Pardon” of Abu-l-Ala al Maarri. Its purpose both theological and literary 55
3. Summary of the work 56
4. Its comparison with the Divine Comedy. Agreement in realism 61
5. General artifices common to both stories 61
6. Similarity of actual incidents, such as the encounter with the two heavenly beauties 65
7. The lion and the wolf barring the road to hell 65
8. The discussion with Adam 66
9. The meeting with the beloved of the poet Imru-l-Qays 66
10. Coincidence in intrinsic literary value 67
VIII. Summary of Comparisons:
1. Systematic grouping of the analogies found to exist between the Divine Comedy and the different versions, adaptations and imitations of the Moslem legend 67
2. Resemblance of the descriptions of hell 68
3. Resemblance of the descriptions of purgatory 69
4. Resemblance of the descriptions of heaven 70
5. Similarity in allegorical meaning 73
6. Other, secondary, features of resemblance 74
7. Provisional conclusions 75
8. Influence upon the Islamic legend of tales from other faiths 75
PART II
THE DIVINE COMEDY COMPARED WITH OTHER MOSLEM LEGENDS ON THE AFTER-LIFE
I. Introduction:
1. Need of further examination of the poem in its five parts—limbo, hell, purgatory, earthly and celestial paradises 79
2. Preliminary enquiry into the doctrine of Islam on the after-life 79
3. Comparison of that doctrine with the teaching of Christianity 79
II. The Moslem Limbo in the Divine Comedy:
1. The name and site of Dante’s limbo, the dwellers therein and their suffering 81
2. Was Dante’s picture, for which there is no Christian precedent, derived from Moslem eschatology? 82
3. The name and site of the Moslem limbo, the dwellers therein and their suffering. The picture is identical with that of Dante’s limbo 83
III. The Moslem Hell in the Divine Comedy:
1. The supposed originality of Dante’s conception of the architecture of hell 85
2. The Moslem hell, according to the Koran and the hadiths, agrees with Dante’s hell in architectural outline 86
3. The Moslem hell, according to the description and designs of Ibn Arabi, is identical in its architectural plan with the hell described by Dante and graphically illustrated by the Dantists 91
IV. The Moslem Hell in the Divine Comedy—continued.
1. Islamic origin of descriptive detail and actual scenes, such as the movement towards the left 96
2. The torture of the adulterers 97
3. The City of Dis 98
4. The rain of fire and the meeting with Brunetto Latini 98
5. The first three valleys of Malebolge 99
6. The torture of the soothsayers in the fourth pit 100
7. The torture of hypocrites 101
8. The torture of thieves 102
9. The torture of the schismatic 103
10. The last chasm of Malebolge 104
V. The Moslem Hell in the Divine Comedy (Conclusion):
1. The giants of Dante’s hell 105
2. The torture of cold 106
3. Dante’s picture of Lucifer and its supposed originality 108
4. Its prototypes in Islam 109
VI. The Moslem Purgatory in the Divine Comedy:
1. Dante’s conception of purgatory 111
2. Its supposed originality 112
3. Precedents for the topography are to be found in Moslem tradition 113
4. Further precedents for the topography furnished by Ibn Arabi’s conception 115
5. The punishments in the ante-purgatory 117
6. The torments of purgatory 118
VII. The Earthly Paradise of Islam in the Divine Comedy:
1. Dante’s story of the earthly paradise and the supposed originality of its setting 121
2. Situation of the earthly paradise, according to Islam, on a lofty mountain in the middle of the ocean 122
3. The garden of paradise placed by Islamic legend between purgatory and heaven 125
4. Dante’s picture compared with the story of Shakir ibn Muslim, of Orihuela 125
5. Islamic sources of the scene of the meeting of Beatrice and Dante 128
6. Summary of the principal Moslem legends on the meeting of the heavenly bride and bridegroom. Their comparison with the episode in Dante 130
7. Recapitulation of partial comparisons 134
VIII. The Celestial Paradise of Islam in the Divine Comedy:
1. The sensuality of the Koranic paradise spiritually interpreted in the hadiths 135
2. Idealistic conception of the delights of paradise according to Algazel, Averrhoes, and Ibn Arabi 137
3. The Moslem paradise susceptible of comparison with that of Dante 139
4. The general scheme of the Paradiso and its precedents in Islam 142
5. Dante’s conception of the abode of glory 145
6. Islamic precedents for that conception 147
IX. The Celestial Paradise of Islam in the Divine Comedy (Conclusion):
1. The architecture of paradise, according to Ibn Arabi 150
2. His geometrical design of paradise is identical with the plan of the mystic rose, as traced by the Dantists 151
3. Dante and Ibn Arabi use the same similes in describing paradise 152
4. The moral structure of paradise is strikingly similar in both authors 154
5. The life of glory, as depicted by Ibn Arabi 157
6. Ibn Arabi’s cardinal theses compared with Dante’s ideas: (1) Beatific Vision of the Divine Light 160
7. (2) Different grades in the Vision; (3) External brilliance of the elect; (4) Ecstasy of delight; (5) Absence of envy 163
8. Dante’s symbol of the Trinity compared with similar geometrical symbols used by Ibn Arabi 167
X. Synthesis of all the Partial Comparisons:
1. General conclusions to be drawn from the resemblances found 171
2. Identity in construction shown by Ibn Arabi’s and Dante’s plans of the hereafter 172
3. Analogies in topographical decoration 172
4. Analogies in symmetry of conception 173
5. The likeness extends to many of the episodes and scenes 173
6. Conclusions to be drawn from the first two parts of this enquiry: Islamic literature sheds light upon a greater number of problems in Dante than do all other religious literatures combined 173
7. Transition to Part III 174
PART III
MOSLEM FEATURES IN THE CHRISTIAN LEGENDS PRECURSORY OF THE DIVINE COMEDY
I. Introduction:
1. Slight influence of these legends upon the genesis of Dante’s poem 177
2. Are these legends the spontaneous outcome of popular imagination, or did they originate in other literatures? 178
3. General evidence of their Moslem origin 178
4. Remarks upon the method followed in this part of the enquiry 179
II. Legends of Visions of Hell:
1. Legend of the Three Monks of the East 180
2. Moslem features in the general setting and in the tortures of hell 180
3. Moslem origin of the myth of the souls incarnate in birds 181
4. Vision of St. Paul 182
5. Scenes of Islamic origin; tortures similar to those described in Mahomet’s nocturnal journey; the sirat, or bridge of the Koran; the wheel of fire 183
6. The final vision, the respite of the sinners and similar Moslem tales 184
III. Legends of Visions of Hell—continued:
1. Legend of Tundal 186
2. Features of Moslem origin; hell represented as a monster; the Aaraf, or Moslem limbo; the punishment in the grave 186
3. The devil with the hundred hands 187
4. Heaven shown to the sinner, ut magis doleant 188
5. The sinner tormented by the cow he had stolen 190
6. Legend of Purgatory of St. Patrick 190
7. Moslem features which this legend shares in common with the former legends 191
IV. Legends of Visions of Hell (Conclusion):
1. Vision of Alberic. Episodes already shown to be of Moslem origin 191
2. The Solar Liod. The topography of hell and other Moslem features 192
3. Vision of Turcill. The Moslem torture of the thief, forced to swallow his illicit gains 193
4. Vision of the Abbot Joachim. The passage of the sirat 193
5. Vision of the Bard of Regio Emilia 193
6. Islamic origin of the Bard’s scheme of hell 194
V. Legends on the Weighing of Souls:
1. Subject common to the legends of this cycle 195
2. The Egypto-Persian myth in Islam, and its influence on the Christian legends 195
3. The representation of St. Michael holding the scales is further evidence of such influence 196
4. Digression to other instances of Moslem influence upon Christian illustrations of the Day of Judgment. The intercession of the Saints. The nakedness of the sinners 197
VI. Legends of Paradise:
1. Anthropomorphism of the legends of this cycle, and their general resemblance to other Islamic legends 199
2. Episodes of Moslem origin, such as the vision of Adam in the legend of Turcill 200
3. Moslem tales precursory of the Christian legends depicting life in paradise as a courtly gathering or religious festival 200
VII. Legends of Sea Voyages:
1. Common characteristics of these legends. Classification into three groups 204
2. Early Moslem counterparts of these legends 205
3. Hypothesis of the influence of the Moslem cycle upon the Christian cycle 205
4. Moslem episodes in the Legend of St. Brandan, such as the table spread with food; the island-whale; the angel birds; the enormous vines; the crystal column; the torment of Judas; the sea-hermit; the isle of paradise 206
5. Conclusion, affirming the Oriental character of the Legend of St. Brandan 214
6. Islamic features of other Christian tales of voyages 214
VIII. Legends of Sleepers:
1. Characteristics common to the legends of this cycle, and brief summary of the main legends 216
2. Prior existence of two groups of similar legends in Islamic literature 218
3. Examination of the three legends of the first group 218
4. The Islamic tales of the second group 220
5. Their resemblance to the mediæval Christian tales may be attributed to Moslem influence upon Christian folklore 221
IX. Legends of the Respite from Torture:
1. The main theme of these legends unauthorized by Catholic doctrine 222
2. Examination of a typical legend of this cycle 223
3. Its main features, viz. the respite from torture and the incarnation of the souls in birds of black plumage, are of Moslem origin 223
4. Christian tales dealing with the mitigation of suffering upon the payment of debt. Their Islamic prototypes 224
5. The mitigation of the pains of hell by means of prayer. Moslem precedents for the Christian legends 225
X. Legends on the Debate Between Angels and Devils for Possession of the Soul:
1. Main elements of the legends of this cycle 226
2. Some of these features unauthorized by Christian doctrine 227
3. Islamic legends describing (1) the appointment of an angel and a devil to each man; (2) the fight for the soul; (3) the books of record; (4) the personification of virtues and vices; (5) the personification of the members of the body; (6) the removal of the soul to hell or heaven 228
4. Summary of comparisons contained in Part III and conclusion to be drawn therefrom; Islamic literature furnishes the explanation of the growth of many of the pre-Dante Christian legends on the after-life 232
5. Transition to Part IV 233
PART IV
PROBABILITY OF THE TRANSMISSION OF ISLAMIC MODELS TO CHRISTIAN EUROPE AND PARTICULARLY TO DANTE
I. Introduction:
1. Literary imitation dependent on three conditions, viz. resemblance between model and copy; priority of the former; and communication between the two 237
2. The similarity in artistic representation of the life beyond the grave is conclusive proof 237
3. Three headings under which evidence of contact may be furnished 238
II. Communication Between Islam and Christian Europe During the Middle Ages:
1. Trade; pilgrimages to the Holy Land; the Crusades; Missions to Islam 239
2. Norman expeditions and conquest of Sicily. The Sicilian court under the Norman dynasty a centre of Moslem culture 240
3. Contact in Spain. The Mozarabs; the slaves; the Jews; other intermediaries 242
4. The Mudejars and the court of Toledo. Archbishop Raymond’s School of Translators 244
5. The court of Alphonso the Wise and the inter-denominational colleges of Murcia and Seville 245
III. Transmission of the Moslem Legends on the After-Life to Christian Europe and Dante:
1. Probability of their transmission through any of the channels mentioned 246
2. Moslem Spain a likely channel 247
3. The knowledge of Moslem legendary lore possessed by the Mozarabs 248
4. The legend of the “Miraj” probably included in the “Summa” of Robert of Reading 248
5. The legend of the “Miraj” in the “Historia Arabum” of Archbishop Rodrigo and the “Estoria d’Espanna” of Alphonso the Wise 249
6. The “Miraj” and other legends of the after-life in the “Impunaçion de la seta de Mahomah” of St. Peter Paschal 250
7. The legend probably transmitted to Italy by St. Peter Paschal 251
8. The knowledge of Arabic learning possessed by Dante’s master, Brunetto Latini 252
9. Brunetto may have learnt of the legend of the “Miraj” during his mission to the court of Alphonso the Wise, and have transmitted his knowledge to his disciple 253
IV. The Attraction Felt by Dante Towards Arabic Culture Confirms the Hypothesis of Imitation:
1. Need of this final enquiry 256
2. The receptiveness of Dante’s mind such that he cannot have felt aversion to Arabic culture 256
3. Signs of Dante’s liking for the Semitic languages 258
4. Evidence of his thorough knowledge of the history of Islam; the torture of Mahomet and Ali 259
5. Dante’s liking for Arabic culture shown by the use he makes of the works of the astronomers and the exemption from hell of Saladin, Avicenna and Averrhoes 261
6. Sigier of Brabant, the champion of Averrhoism, placed in paradise 262
7. Bruno Nardi’s explanation of this enigma; Dante’s philosophy akin rather to that of Avicenna and Averrhoes than to that of St. Thomas 263
V. The Close Resemblance between Dante and the Mystic, Ibn Arabi of Murcia, Furnishes Further Proof of the Thesis of Imitation:
1. Dante’s relation to the Illuministic Mystics mooted 263
2. General parallel between the Illuministic images used by both authors 264
3. Comparison of their expository methods. The cabbala of letters and numbers; astrological subtleties; personification of abstract entities; interpretation of dream visions 265
4. Particular parallel between Dante’s vision of Love (Vita Nuova, XII) and similar visions described by Ibn Arabi 266
5. Striking analogy of Dante’s “Cancionero” and its allegorical commentary, the “Convito,” to Ibn Arabi’s book of songs, “The Interpreter of Love,” and its allegorical commentary, “The Treasures of Lovers” 267
6. The dolce stil nuovo poetry and Vossler’s hypothesis as to its origin 271
7. Earlier examples of this type of poetry in Islam. Romantic love in profane literature. The “Necklace of the Dove,” or “Book of Love,” of Ibn Hazm of Cordova 272
8. The mystical love of woman in Sufi literature. Woman as an angel and a symbol of Divine wisdom. The phenomena of love analysed and allegorically interpreted in Ibn Arabi’s Futuhat 274
9. Epilogue. The eschatology of Islam and the conceptions of Ibn Arabi as a key to the riddles in Dante and a remote reflex of Christian spirituality 275