PREFACE

This sketch of the History of Rome to 565 A. D. is primarily intended to meet the needs of introductory college courses in Roman History. However, it is hoped that it may also prove of service as a handbook for students of Roman life and literature in general. It is with the latter in mind that I have added the bibliographical note. Naturally, within the brief limits of such a text, it was impossible to defend the point of view adopted on disputed points or to take notice of divergent opinions. Therefore, to show the great debt which I owe to the work of others, and to provide those interested in particular problems with some guide to more detailed study, I have given a list of selected references, which express, I believe, the prevailing views of modern scholarship upon the various phases of Roman History.

I wish to acknowledge my general indebtedness to Professor W. S. Ferguson of Harvard University for his guidance in my approach to the study of Roman History, and also my particular obligations to Professor W. L. Westermann of Cornell, and to my colleagues, Professors A. L. Cross and J. G. Winter, for reading portions of my manuscript and for much helpful criticism.

A. E. R. Boak.

University of Michigan,
October, 1921

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	INTRODUCTION	PAGE
	The Sources for the Study of Early Roman History	xiii
	PART I THE FORERUNNERS OF ROME IN ITALY
	CHAPTER I
	The Geography of Italy	3
	CHAPTER II
	Prehistoric Civilization in Italy	7
	CHAPTER III
	The Peoples of Historic Italy	13
	The Etruscans; the Greeks.
	PART II THE EARLY MONARCHY AND THE REPUBLIC, FROM PREHISTORIC TIMES TO 27 B. C.
	CHAPTER IV
	Early Rome to the Fall of the Monarchy	25
	The Latins; the Origins of Rome; the Early Monarchy; Early Roman Society.
	CHAPTER V
	The Expansion of Rome to the Unification of the Italian Peninsula: c. 509–265 b. c.	33
	To the Conquest of Veii, c. 392 B. C.; the Gallic Invasion; the Disruption of the Latin League and the Alliance of the Romans with the Campanians; Wars with the Samnites, Gauls and Etruscans; the Roman Conquest of South Italy; the Roman Confederacy.
	CHAPTER VI
	The Constitutional Development of Rome to 287 b. c.	47
	The Early Republic; the Assembly of the Centuries and the Development of the Magistracy; the Plebeian Struggle for Political Equality; the Roman Military System.
	CHAPTER VII
	Religion and Society in Early Rome	61
	CHAPTER VIII
	Roman Domination in the Mediterranean: The First Phase—the Struggle with Carthage, 265–201 b. c.	67
	The Mediterranean World in 265 B. C.; the First Punic War; the Illyrian and Gallic Wars; the Second Punic War; the Effect of the Second Punic War upon Italy.
	CHAPTER IX
	Roman Domination in the Mediterranean: The Second Phase—Rome and the Greek East	89
	The Second Macedonian War; the War with Antiochus the Great and the Ætolians; the Third Macedonian War; Campaigns in Italy and Spain.
	CHAPTER X
	Territorial Expansion in Three Continents: 167–133 b. c.	99
	The Spanish Wars; the Destruction of Carthage; War with Macedonia and the Achæan Confederacy; the Acquisition of Asia.
	CHAPTER XI
	The Roman State and the Empire: 265–133 b. c.	105
	The Rule of the Senatorial Aristocracy; the Administration of the Provinces; Social and Economic Development; Cultural Progress.
	CHAPTER XII
	The Struggle of the Optimates and the Populares: 133–78 b. c.	125
	The Agrarian Laws of Tiberius Gracchus; the Tribunate of Caius Gracchus; the War with Jugurtha and the Rise of Marius; the Cimbri and the Teutons; Saturninus and Glaucia; the Tribunate of Marcus Livius Drusus; the Italian or Marsic War; the First Mithridatic War; Sulla’s Dictatorship.
	CHAPTER XIII
	The Rise of Pompey the Great: 78–59 b. c.	151
	Pompey’s Command against Sertorius in Spain; the Command of Lucullus against Mithridates; the Revolt of the Gladiators; the Consulate of Pompey and Crassus; the Commands of Pompey against the Pirates and in the East; the Conspiracy of Cataline; the Coalition of Pompey, Cæsar and Crassus.
	CHAPTER XIV
	The Rivalry of Pompey and Caesar: Caesar’s Dictatorship: 59–44 b. c.	166
	Cæsar, Consul; Cæsar’s Conquest of Gaul; the Civil War between Cæsar and the Senate; the Dictatorship of Julius Cæsar.
	CHAPTER XV
	The Passing of the Republic: 44–27 b. c.	185
	The Rise of Octavian; the Triumvirate of 43 B. C.; the victory of Octavian over Antony and Cleopatra; Society and Intellectual Life in the Last Century of the Republic.
	PART III THE PRINCIPATE OR EARLY EMPIRE: 27 B. C.–285 A. D.
	CHAPTER XVI
	The Establishment of the Principate: 27 b. c.–14 a. d.	205
	The Princeps; the Senate, the Equestrians and the Plebs; the Military Establishment; the Revival of Religion and Morality; the Provinces and the Frontiers; the Administration of Rome; the Problem of the Succession; Augustus as a Statesman.
	CHAPTER XVII
	The Julio-Claudian Line and the Flavians: 14–96 a. d.	226
	Tiberius; Caius Caligula; Claudius; Nero; the First War of the Legions or the Year of the Four Emperors; Vespasian and Titus; Domitian.
	CHAPTER XVIII
	From Nerva to Diocletian: 96–285 a. d.	244
	Nerva and Trajan; Hadrian; the Antonines; the Second War of the Legions; the Dynasty of the Severi; the Dissolution and Restoration of the Empire.
	CHAPTER XIX
	The Public Administration under the Principate	264
	The Victory of Autocracy; the Growth of the Civil Service; the Army and the Defence of the Frontiers; the Provinces under the Principate; Municipal Life; the Colonate or Serfdom.
	CHAPTER XX
	Religion and Society	293
	Society under the Principate; the Intellectual World; the Imperial Cult and the Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism; Christianity and the Roman State.
	PART IV THE AUTOCRACY OR LATE EMPIRE: 285–565 A. D.
	CHAPTER XXI
	From Diocletian to Theodosius the Great: the Integrity of the Empire Maintained: 285–395 a. d.	317
	Diocletian; Constantine I, the Great; the Dynasty of Constantine; the House of Valentinian and Theodosius the Great.
	CHAPTER XXII
	The Public Administration of the Late Empire	333
	The Autocrat and his Court; the Military Organization; the Perfection of the Bureaucracy; the Nobility and the Senate; the System of Taxation and the Ruin of the Municipalities.
	CHAPTER XXIII
	The Germanic Occupation of Italy and the Western Provinces: 395–493 a. d.	351
	General Characteristics of the Period; the Visigothic Migrations; the Vandals; the Burgundians, Franks and Saxons; the Fall of the Empire in the West; the Survival of the Empire in the East.
	CHAPTER XXIV
	The Age of Justinian: 518–565 a. d.	369
	The Germanic Kingdoms in the West to 533 A. D.; the Restoration of the Imperial Power in the West; Justinian’s Frontier Problems and Internal Administration.
	CHAPTER XXV
	Religious and Intellectual Life in the Late Empire	385
	The End of Paganism; the Church in the Christian Empire; Sectarian Strife; Monasticism; Literature and Art.
	Epilogue	403
	Chronological Table	405
	Bibliographical Note	415
	Index	423

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LIST OF MAPS

	The Roman Empire in the Second Century A. D.	Frontispiece
		PAGE
	The Peoples of Italy about 500 B. C.	14
	The Environs of Rome	24
	Roman Expansion in Italy to 265 B. C.	32
	The Expansion of Rome in the Mediterranean World 265–44 B. C.	68
	The Roman Empire from 31 B. C. to 300 A. D.	204
	The Roman Empire in 395 A. D.	332
	The Roman Empire and the Germanic Kingdoms in 526 A. D.	368
	The Roman Empire in 565 A. D.	380

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INTRODUCTION

The Sources for the Study of Early Roman History

The student beginning the study of Roman History through the medium of the works of modern writers cannot fail to note wide differences in the treatment accorded by them to the early centuries of the life of the Roman State. These differences are mainly due to differences of opinion among moderns as to the credibility of the ancient accounts of this period. And so it will perhaps prove helpful to give a brief review of these sources, and to indicate the estimate of their value which is reflected in this book.

The earliest Roman historical records were in the form of annals, that is, brief notices of important events in connection with the names of the consuls or other eponymous officials for each year. They may be compared to the early monastic chronicles of the Middle Ages. Writing was practised in Rome as early as the sixth century B. C. and there can be no doubt that the names of consuls or their substitutes were recorded from the early years of the republic, although the form of the record is unknown. It is in the annals that the oldest list of the consuls was preserved, the Capitoline consular and triumphal Fasti or lists being reconstructions of the time of Augustus.

The authorship of the earliest annals is not recorded. However, at the opening of the second century B. C. the Roman pontiffs had in their custody annals which purported to run back to the foundation of the city, including the regal period. We know also that as late as the time of the Gracchi it was customary for the Pontifex Maximus to record on a tablet for public inspection the chief events of each year. When this custom began is uncertain and it can only be proven for the time when the Romans had commenced to undertake maritime wars. From these pontifical records were compiled the so-[pg xiv]called annales Maximi, or chief annals, whose name permits the belief that briefer compilations were also in existence. There were likewise commentaries preserved in the priestly colleges, which contained ritualistic formulæ, as well as attempted explanations of the origins of usages and ceremonies.

Apart from these annals and commentaries there existed but little historical material before the close of the third century B. C. There was no Roman literature; no trace remains of any narrative poetry, nor of family chronicles. Brief funerary inscriptions, like that of Scipio Barbatus, appear in the course of the third century, and laudatory funeral orations giving the records of family achievements seem to have come into vogue about the end of the same century.

However, the knowledge of writing made possible the inscription upon stone or other material of public documents which required to be preserved with exactness. Thus laws and treaties were committed to writing. But the Romans, unlike the Greeks, paid little attention to the careful preservation of other documents and, until a late date, did not even keep a record of the minor magistrates. Votive offerings and other dedications were also inscribed, but as with the laws and treaties, few of these survived into the days of historical writing, owing to neglect and the destruction wrought in the city by the Gauls in 387 B. C.

Nor had the Greeks paid much attention to Roman history prior to the war with Pyrrhus in 281 B. C., although from that time onwards Greek historians devoted themselves to the study of Roman affairs. From this date the course of Roman history is fairly clear. However, as early as the opening of the fourth century B. C. the Greeks had sought to bring the Romans into relation with other civilized peoples of the ancient world by ascribing the foundation of Rome to Aeneas and the exiles from Troy; a tale which had gained acceptance in Rome by the close of the third century.

The first step in Roman historical writing was taken at the close of the Second Punic War by Quintus Fabius Pictor, who wrote in Greek a history of Rome from its foundation to his own times. A similar work, also in Greek, was composed by his contemporary, Lucius Cincius Alimentus. The oldest traditions were thus wrought into a connected version, which has been preserved in some passages of Polybius, but to a larger extent in the fragments of the Library of Universal History compiled by Diodorus the Sicilian about 30 B. C. [pg xv]Existing portions of his work (books 11 to 20) cover the period from 480 to 302 B. C.; and as his library is little more than a series of excerpts his selections dealing with Roman history reflect his sources with little contamination.

Other Roman chroniclers of the second century B. C. also wrote in Greek and, although early in that century Ennius wrote his epic relating the story of Rome from the settlement of Aeneas, it was not until about 168 that the first historical work in Latin prose appeared. This was the Origins of Marcus Porcius Cato, which contained an account of the mythical origins of Rome and other Italian cities, and was subsequently expanded to cover the period from the opening of the Punic Wars to 149 B. C.

Contemporary history soon attracted the attention of the Romans but they did not neglect the earlier period. In their treatment of the latter new tendencies appear about the time of Sulla under patriotic and rhetorical stimuli. The aim of historians now became to provide the public with an account of the early days of Rome that would be commeasurate with her later greatness, and to adorn this narrative, in Greek fashion, with anecdotes, speeches, and detailed descriptions, which would enliven their pages and fascinate their readers. Their material they obtained by invention, by falsification, and by the incorporation into Roman history of incidents from the history of other peoples. These writers were not strictly historians, but writers of historical romance. Their chief representative was Valerius Antias.

The Ciceronian age saw great vigor displayed in antiquarian research, with the object of explaining the origin of ancient Roman customs, ceremonies, institutions, monuments, and legal formulæ, and of establishing early Roman chronology. In this field the greatest activity was shown by Marcus Terentius Varro, whose Antiquities deeply influenced his contemporaries and successors.

In the age of Augustus, between 27 B. C. and 19 A. D., Livy wrote his great history of Rome from its beginnings. His work summed up the efforts of his predecessors and gave to the history of Rome down to his own times the form which it preserved for the rest of antiquity. Although it is lacking in critical acumen in the handling of sources, and in an understanding for political and military history, the dramatic and literary qualities of his work have ensured its popularity. Of it there have been preserved the first ten books (to [pg xvi]293 B. C.), and books 21 to 45 (from 218 to 167 B. C.). A contemporary of Livy was the Greek writer Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who wrote a work called Roman Antiquities, which covered the history of Rome down to 265 B. C. The earlier part of his work has also been preserved. In general he depended upon Varro and Livy, and gives substantially the same view of early Roman history as the latter.

What these later writers added to the meagre annalistic narrative preserved in Diodorus is of little historical value, except in so far as it shows what the Romans came to believe with regard to their own past. The problem which faced the later Roman historians was the one which faces writers of Roman history today, namely, to explain the origins and early development of the Roman state. And their explanation does not deserve more credence than a modern reconstruction simply because they were nearer in point of time to the period in question, for they had no wealth of historical materials which have since been lost, and they were not animated by a desire to reach the truth at all costs nor guided by rational principles of historical criticism. Accordingly we must regard as mythical the traditional narrative of the founding of Rome and of the regal period, and for the history of the republic to the time of the war with Pyrrhus we should rely upon the list of eponymous magistrates, whose variations indicate political crises, supplemented by the account in Diodorus, with the admission that this itself is not infallible. All that supplements or deviates from this we should frankly acknowledge to be of a hypothetical nature. Therefore we should concede the impossibility of giving a complete and adequate account of the history of these centuries and refrain from doing ourselves what we criticize in the Roman historians.

A History of Rome to 565 A. D.

About This Book

PREFACE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF MAPS

INTRODUCTION

The Sources for the Study of Early Roman History