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The volume surveys principal ideas, institutions, and rites that underlie public religion, comparing examples across cultures to trace development from early animistic notions through beliefs about the soul and its fate, rites of purification, initiation, marriage, birth, and burial, and seasonal and economic ceremonies. It analyzes cultic forms and sacred objects—animals, plants, stones, waters, fire, celestial bodies—and examines worship of living and dead, ritual symbolism, and social functions of religion, offering an organized, comparative handbook with references and indexes for further study.

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Title: Introduction to the History of Religions

Author: Crawford Howell Toy

Editor: Morris Jastrow

Release date: January 18, 2009 [eBook #27829]

Language: English

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Transcriber's Note:
Footnote links in the INDEX shown as n. x are linked to the same footnotes with reindexed footnote numbers.

HANDBOOKS
ON THE
HISTORY OF RELIGIONS

EDITED BY

MORRIS JASTROW, Jr., Ph.D.
Late Professor of Semitic Languages in the
University of Pennsylvania

Volume IV

LONDON: HUMPHREY MILFORD
Oxford University Press


 
INTRODUCTION TO THE

HISTORY OF RELIGIONS

BY

CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY
Late Professor in Harvard University

CAMBRIDGE
HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS
1924
COPYRIGHT, 1913
BY CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY
———
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Third Impression
PRINTED AT THE HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS
CAMBRIDGE, MASS., U.S.A.


PREFACE

The object of this volume is to describe the principal customs and ideas that underlie all public religion; the details are selected from a large mass of material, which is increasing in bulk year by year. References to the higher religions are introduced for the purpose of illustrating lines of progress.

The analytic table of contents and the index are meant to supplement each other, the one giving the outline of the discussion, the other giving the more important particulars; the two together will facilitate the consultation of the book. In the selected list of works of reference the titles are arranged, as far as possible, in chronological order, so as to indicate in a general way the progress of investigation in the subjects mentioned.

My thanks are due to the publishers for the care they have taken in the printing of the volume, and to their proofreaders, particularly to the chief proofreader, for not a few helpful suggestions.

C. H. T.

Cambridge, Massachusetts


CONTENTS

(The Arabic figures in the chapter summaries refer to paragraphs)
  PAGE
CHAPTER I. NATURE OF RELIGION 1
Science and religion coeval, 1; Man's sense of dependence on mysterious Powers, 2; Early man's feeling toward them of a mixed nature, 3; mainly selfish, 4; Prominence of fear, 6 Conception of natural law, 7; Sense of an extrahuman Something, 9; Universality of religion, 10; Its development parallel to that of social organization, 12; Unitary character of human life, 14; External religion, 15; Internal religion, 16.  
CHAPTER II. THE SOUL 10
Nature of the Soul. Universal belief in an interior something, 18; its basis, 19; from observation of breath, 21; of shadow, 22 of blood, 23 Its form a sublimated double of the corporeal man, 24; or of an animal, 25; The seat of the soul, 26; Localization of qualities, 27; Consequences of the soul's leaving the body, 29 The hidden soul, 31.  
Origin of the Soul. Not investigated by savages, 32; Creation of man, 33; Theories of birth, 34 Divine origin of the soul, 36; Mysteriousness of death, 38.  
Polypsychism. Early views of the number and functions of souls, 39 Civilized views, 43.
Future of the Soul. Belief in its death, 46; This belief transient, 51-53; Dwellingplace of the surviving soul in human beings, beasts, plants, or inanimate objects, -59; or near its earthly abode, 60-63; or in some remote place in earth, sea, or sky, 66-66 or in an underground world, 67-69; Occupations of the dead, 70; Retribution in the Underworld, 71 Nonmoral distinctions, 72-75; Moral retribution, savage, 76-78; Civilized, 79-80; Local separation of the good from the bad, 81 Reward and punishment, Hindu, 82 Egyptian, 83; Greek, 84 Jewish and Christian, 85, 86 Purgatory, 87 Resurrection, 88-90.  
Powers of the Separated Soul. Prayers for the dead, 95, 96.  
Genesis of Spirits. Functions of spirits (souls of nonhuman objects), 97-100.  
CHAPTER III. EARLY RELIGIOUS CEREMONIES 48
Predominance of ceremonies in early religious life, 101, 102 They are communal, 103; and sacred, 104.  
Emotional and Dramatic Ceremonies. Religious dances and plays, 106-108; Connected with the worship of gods, 109; Are means of religious culture, 110; Processions, 111; Circumambulation, 112; Magical potency, 113.  
Decorative and Curative Ceremonies. Decoration of the body, 114-118; of houses, 119; of official dress, 120; Symbolism in decoration, 121.  
Economic Ceremonies. Propitiation of hunted animals, 122-125; Taboos, 126; Rules about eating, 127-128; Magical means of procuring food, 129-131; Use of blood, 132; to fertilize soil, 133; Sacrifice of first-born animals, including children, 134; Raising and housing crops, 135; Rain, 136; Survivals in civilized times, 137.  
Apotropaic Ceremonies. Early methods, 138-139; Expulsion of spirits, 140-141; Transference of evil, 142, 143; Expulsion by sacrifice, 144; The massing of such observances, 145.  
Ceremonies of Puberty and Initiation. Training of the young, 146; Tests of endurance, 147; Seclusion of girls, 148; Rearrangement of taboos, 149; Supernatural machinery, 150; Mutilation of the body, 151, 152; Circumcision of males, its wide diffusion, 153; not a test of endurance, 154; nor hygienic, 155; nor to get rid of magical dangers, 156; nor to increase procreative power, 157; not religious in origin: not a form of phallic worship, 158; nor a sacrifice, 159, 160; nor a provision for reincarnation, 161; Circumcision of females, 162; Object of circumcision probably increase of sensual enjoyment, 163, 164; The symbolical interpretation, 165-168; Ceremonies of initiation to secure union with the clan, 169; Feigned resurrection of the initiate, 170; The lonely vision, 171; Instruction of youth, 172, 173; Initiation into secret societies, 174.  
Marriage Ceremonies. Simple forms, 176-178; The bride hiding, 179; Prenuptial defloration, 180; Introduction of a supernatural element, 181; View that all marriage-ceremonies are essentially religious, 182.  
Ceremonies at Birth. Parental care, 184; The couvade, 185; Child regarded as a reincarnation, 186; Ablutions and naming, 187; Child regarded as child of God, 188.  
Burial Ceremonies. Natural grief, 189; Propitiation of the dead by offerings at grave, 190; Ban of silence, 191; The dead regarded as powerful, 192; Social value of these ceremonies, 193.  
Ceremonies of Purification and Consecration. Occasions of purification, 194-196; Methods: by water, sand, etc., 197-199; by sacrifice, 200; Purification of a whole community, 201; Consecration of private and official persons, 202, 203; Fasting, 204; its origin, 205-207; its religious effects, 208; Result of massing these ceremonies, 209.  
Ceremonies Connected With Seasons and Periods. Calendars, 210, 211; Lunar festivals, 212-214; Solar festivals, 215; Solstitial and stellar festivals, 216; Importance of agricultural festivals, 217; Joyous, 218; Licentious, 219; Offering of first fruits, 220; Sadness, 221; The eating of sacred food, 222; Long periods, 223; Social value of these ceremonies, 224.  
CHAPTER IV. EARLY CULTS 99
Savage treatment of superhuman Powers discriminating, 225-228; Charms and fetish objects, 229, 230; Life-force (mana), 231-233; not an object of worship, but enters into alliance with religion, 234, 235; Nature of sacredness, 236, 237; Luck, 238; The various objects of worship, 239, 240.  
Animals. Their social relations with men, 241, 242; Transformation and transmigration, 243; Two attitudes of men toward animals, 244-248; What animals are revered, 249, 250; Regarded as incarnations of gods or of spirits, 251; Those sacred to gods generally represent old beast-cults, 252, 253; Survivals of reverence for animals, 254; Beasts as creators, 255, 256; Worship rarely offered them, 257, 258; Coalescence of beast-cults with other religious observances, 259; Whether animals ever became anthropomorphic deities, 260; Historical significance of beast-cults, 261.  
Plants. Their economic rôle, 262-264; Held to possess souls, 265; Their relations with men friendly and unfriendly, 266, 267; Sacred trees, 268, 269; Deification of soma, 270; Whether corn-spirits have been deified, 271; Sacred trees by shrines, 272; Their connection with totem posts, 273; Blood-kinship between men and trees, 274, 275; The cosmic tree, 276; Divinatory function of trees, 277; Relation of tree-spirits to gods, 278-285.  
Stones and Mountains. Stones alive and sacred, 286-288; have magical powers, 289, 290; Relation between divine stones and gods, 291-295; Magna Mater, 291; Massebas, 293; Bethels, 294; Stones cast on graves, and boundary stones, 296; Stones as altars: natural forms, 297; artificial forms, 298; High pillars by temples, 299; Images of gods, 300, 301; Folk-stories and myths connected with stones, 302; Sacred mountains, 303-305.  
Waters. Why waters are regarded as sacred, 306-308; Ritual use of water, 309; Water-spirits, 310, 311; Water-gods, 312-314; Rain-giving gods, 315; Water-myths, 316; Gods of ocean, 317.  
Fire. Its sacredness, 318, 319; Persian fire-cult, 320; Ritual use of fire, 321-323; Its symbolic significance, 334; Light as sacred, 325.  
Winds. Their relation to gods, 327.  
Heavenly Bodies. Anthropomorphized, 328; Cosmogonic myths connected with them, 329, 330; Sex of sun and moon, 331; Whether they ever became gods, 332, 333; Thunder and lightning not worshiped, 334.  
Worship of Human Beings. Their worship widespread, with distinction between the living and the dead, 335.  
The Cult of the Living. Worship to be distinguished from reverence, 336; Worship of the living by savages, 337; by civilised peoples, 338; in Egypt, 339, 340; in Babylonia, 341; but there probably not Semitic, 342; not by Hebrews and Arabs, 343, 344; in China, 345; in Japan, 346; Whether by Greeks and Romans, 347; Not in India and Persia, 348; Cults of the living rarely important, 349.  
The Cult of the Dead. Of historical persons: noncivilized, 351; civilized: in Egypt, 352; in Greece and Rome, 353; in China, 354; of the Calif Ali, 355; Greek and Roman worship of mythical ancestors, 356, 357; Dedivinization of gods, 358; Euhemerism, 359; Worship of the dead kin, 360, 361; Ghosts friendly and unfriendly, 362; Savage customs: mourning, 363; funeral feasts, 364; fear and kindly feeling, 365, 366; Definite cult of ghosts: savage, 367-370; civilised, 371-373; Greek and Roman state cults, 374; Chinese, 375; Divine functions of the venerated dead, 376-378; Ethical power of ancestor-worship, 379-383.  
Cults of Generative Powers. Nature's productivity, 384-386; Not all customs connected with generation are religious, 387; Cult of generative organs, 388-406; widespread, 388; Nonreligious usages, 389, 390; Phallic cults hardly to be found among the lowest peoples, 391, 392; Well developed in West Africa, 393; in modern India, 394; in Japan, 395; Most definite in some ancient civilized religions, 396; In Egypt, 397; Whether in Semitic communities, 398; Hierapolis, 399; Babylonia and Palestine, 400; Extensively practiced in Asia Minor, Ionia, and Greece, 401; Priapos, 402, 403; The Roman Mutunus Tutunus, 404; Phalli as amulets, 405; The female organ, 406; Androgynous deities, 407-418; Supposed Semitic figures: Ishtar, 408; Ashtart, 409; Tanit, 410; The Cyprian goddess, 411, 412; The Phrygian Agdistis, 413; Hermaphroditos, 415, 416; Androgynous deities not religiously important, 417; Origin of the conception, 418; Animals associated with phallic deities, 419; Christian phallic cults, 420.  
CHAPTER V. TOTEMISM AND TABOO 176
The contrasted rôles of the two, 421.  
Totemism. Social protective clan customs, 422; Control of marriage by exogamic organization, 423-428; Theories of the origin of exogamy (scarcity of women, primitive promiscuity, absence of sexual attraction between persons brought up together, patriarch's jealousy, horror of incest, migration of young men) and criticism of them, 429-435; Diffusion and function of exogamy, 436-440; Definition of totemism, 441; Customs and beliefs associated with it, 442: exogamy, 443; names and badges, 444-448; descent from the totem, 449-451; refusal to kill or eat it, 452-459; magical ceremonies for increasing supply of food, 460, 461; Stricter definition of totemism, 462-465; Geographical distribution of totemic usages, 466-513; Australia, 468-473; Torres Straits Islands, 474, 475; British New Guinea, 476; Melanesia, 477-483; Micronesia and Polynesia, 484, 485; Indonesia, 486; India, 487; North America, 488-506; Africa, 507-513; Supposed traces in civilized peoples, 514-519; The permanent element in totemism, 520, 521; Conditions favorable and unfavorable to totemistic organization, 522; economic, 523-528; individualistic institutions (secret societies, guardian spirits), 529-537; political, 538; religious, 539, 540; The lines of progress to which totemism succumbs, 541.  
Theories of the Origin of Totemism, 542-559:  
Individualistic Theories. Confusion between names and things, 544; Animal or plant held to be the incarnation of a dead man, 545; Body of an animal as magical apparatus, 546; Animals as places of deposit of souls, 547; An object that influences a mother at conception, of which the child may not eat, 548; Animals and plants as incarnations of the souls of the dead, 549; Criticism, 550-552.  
Theories Based on Clan Action. A clan chooses an animal or plant as friend, 553, 554; The totem a clan badge, 555-557; Coöperation of groups to supply particular foods, 558; The totem a god incarnate in every member of a clan, 559; Summing-up on origin of totemism, 560-562; Social function of totemism, 563; Whether it produced the domestication of animals and plants, 564-569; Its relation to religion, 570-580; The totem as helper, 570-575; Whether a totem is ever worshiped, 576; or ever becomes a god, 577-580.  
Taboo. Its relation to ethics, 581-584; It has to do with dangerous objects and acts, 585, 586; Classes of taboo things, 587: those connected with the conception of life (parents and children), 588, 589; with death, 590, 591; with women and the relation between the sexes, 592-594; with great personages, 595-597; with industrial pursuits, 589-600; with other important social events (expulsion of spirits, sacred seasons, war, etc.), 601-604; with the moon: fear of celest phenomena, 605; observation of lunations, 606; new moon and full moon, 607; Whether the Hebrew sabbath was originally a full-moon day, 608, 609; The seven-day week, 610; Prohibitions connected with lucky and unlucky days, 611-613; Punishment of violation of taboo, 614, 615; Removal of taboos, 616, 617; Taboo and magic, 618, 619; Modification of taboo by civil law, 620; Despotism of taboo, 621; Duration of taboo periods, 622; Diffusion of taboo customs, 623, 624; Traces in ancient civilized communities, 625; Indications of former general prevalence, 626, 627; Causes of disappearance, 628, 629; Rôle of taboo in the history of religion, 630-634.  
CHAPTER VI. GODS 265
How gods differ from other supernatural beings, 635, 636; Early mythical founders of culture, 637-643.  
Clan Gods (including divinized men). In lower tribes, 644-647; In civilized nations, 648-651; One class of Greek "heroes," 652, 653; Historical importance of clan gods, 654.  
Departmental Gods. In half-civilised communities, 658-662; In Maya, Mexican, and Peruvian religions, 663-665; Among Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, 666-670; Supposed Semitic instances, 671; Tutelary deities of individuals, cities, and nations, 672, 673; Classes of departmental gods, 674: Creators, 675-679; Gods of the other world, 680-682: Good and bad Powers, 683-694; Conflict and adjustment, 684-688; Ethical dualism, 689; Man's attitude toward demons, 690-694; Gods of abstractions, 695-697: Semitic, 698-700; Egyptian, 701; Roman and Greek, 702; Aryan, 703; Absorption of specialized deities by great gods, 704-706.  
Nature Gods. Their characteristics, 707, 708; Cult of the sun, 709-713; of the moon, 714; of stars, 715-718.  
The Great Gods. Their genesis, 719, 720; Divine dynasties, 721-723; The supremacy of a particular god determined by social conditions, 724; Origin of composite figures, 725.  
Illustrations of the growth of gods, 725 ff.:  
Egyptians. Horus, 726; Ra, 727; Osiris, 728; Hathor, Neith, Isis, 729.  
Hindu. Varuna, 730; Indra, 731; Soma, 732; Vishnu and Çiva, 733; Dyaus and Prithivi, 734; Ushas (and Çaktism), 734; Yama, 735, 736.  
Persian. Ahura Mazda and Angro Mainyu, 737, 738; Mithra and Anahita, 739; Character of the Zoroastrian reform, 740-745.  
Chinese. Feeble theistic development, 746; Confucianism and Taoism, 747-749.  
Japanese. No great god, 750.  
Nature of Semitic theistic constructions, 751-755.  
Babylonian and Assyrian. Ea, 756; Enlil (Bel), 757; Marduk, 758; Ashur, 759; Female deities, 760; Bau, 761; Ishtar, 762, 763.  
Phoenician and Arabian. Melkart, Eshmun, Dusares, Al-Lât, Al-Uzza, 764.  
Hebrew. Yahweh, 765; The titles Ilu (El), Elohim, 766.  
Greek. The pantheon, 767; Zeus, 768, 769; Apollo, 770; Poseidon, 771; Hermes, 772; Pan, 773, 774; Ares, 775; Dionysus, 776-778; Hades, 779, 780; Female deities, 781: Hera, 782, 783; Demeter, 784; Maiden goddesses, 785: the Kore, 786; Hestia, 787; Artemis, 788, 789; Hekate, 790; Athene, 791, 792; Aphrodite, 793, 794; Breadth of the Greek theistic scheme, 795.  
Roman. Nature gods, 796, 797; Jupiter, 798; Janus, 799; Mars, 800; Saturn, 801; Deities of obscure origin, 802; Female deities, 803; Juno, 804; Vesta, 805; Diana, 806; Minerva, 807; Venus, 808, 809.  
Characteristics of the great ancient national religions, 810-818.  
CHAPTER VII. MYTHS 359
Their historical value, 819, 820; Duration of the mythopœic age, 821; Period of origination of myths, 832; Similarity of myths throughout the world, 823-826; Classes of myths, 827:  
Cosmogonic. Creation of the world, 838-831; of man, 832, 833; Man originally not mortal, 834; Macrobiotes, 835; Primeval paradise, 835; Final destruction of the world, etc., 836-838.  
Ethnogonic, 839-841.  
Sociogonic, 842: Arts and ceremonies, 843-845; Relation between myth and ritual, 846; Social reforms, 847; Sacred places, 848.  
Astronomical, procellar, vegetation: astrological, 849, 850; Storm myths, 851; Certain heroes, 852, 853; Decay and revival of vegetation, 854, 855; Literary mythical histories, 856; Antagonism between light and darkness, 857, 858.  
Mingling of myth and legend, 859, 860; Original nature of a god given in popular observances, 861; Interpretation of myths, 862; Ancient, 863; Recent, 864-879; Influence of myths on dogmas and ceremonies, 880; Fairy lore, 881.  
CHAPTER VIII. MAGIC AND DIVINATION 392
Difference between their functions, 882.  
Magic. Science of magic, 883-885; Its methods, 886, 887; Relation between magic and religion, 888-890; Magic a social product, 891; Magicians, 893-894; Families, 895; Women, 895, 896; Tribes, 897; Power of the magician, 898; His methods, 899, 900; Attitude of civilised religions toward magic, 901, 902; Its persistent hold on men, 903; Its historical rôle, 904.  
Divination. Its nature and organization, 905, 906; Prophetic ecstasy, 907; Relations between magician, diviner, and priest, 908.  
  Divinatory signs, 909, 910; Signs without human initiation: omens, 911, 912; Prodigies, 913: Astrology, 914, 915; Words and acts of men, 916; Parts of the human body, 917; Signs arranged for by men: lots, 918; Haruspication, etc., 919, 920; Oneiromancy, 921-923; Ordeals, 924-926; Oracles and necromancy, 927; Development of the office of diviner, 928-932; Sibyls and Sibylline books, 933-940; Religious and ethical influence of divination, 941, 942.  
CHAPTER IX. THE HIGHER THEISTIC DEVELOPMENT 440
Groups into which the great religions fall, 943, 944.  
Polytheism. Differences between the polytheistic schemes of various peoples: Egyptian, Semitic, Indo-European, Mexican, Peruvian, 945-950; Extent of anthropomorphization of gods measured by richness of mythology: in savage and half-civilized communities, 952-954; Gradations of anthropomorphization in civilized peoples, 955-964; Religious rôle of polytheism, 965, 966; Dissatisfaction with its discordances, and demand for simplification of the conception of the divine government of the world, 967.  
Dualism. Belief of lower tribes in two mutually antagonistic sets of Powers, 968-972; Of the great ancient religions it is only Zoroastrianism that has constructed a dualistic system, 973-976; Whether a strictly dualistic scheme has ever existed, 977; Manichæism, 978; Problems raised by dualism, 979.  
Monotheism. The general movement toward it, 980, 981; Two theories of its origin: that it is the natural primitive form of religion, that it is the result of a primitive divine revelation, 982; The facts in the case: it is not now found in low tribes, 983-985; it is not visible in the popular cults of the great nations of antiquity, 986; But tendency toward a unitary conception of the divine government of the world, 987; Disposition to ascribe absoluteness to some one deity in Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria, India, 988-991; Chinese headship of Heaven, 992; Peruvian cult of the sun, 993; Hebrew monolatry, 994, 995; Demand for unity by Greek poets and philosophers, 996-1001; Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, 1002; Cults of Isis and Mithra—Modern reforms: Brahma-Samaj, Parsi, Babist, Shinto, 1003.  
Pantheistic and Nontheistic Systems. Pantheism is a revolt against the separation of God and the world, 1004; Perplexing ethical and religious questions make it unacceptable to the mass of men, 1005; Nontheistic systems attempt to secure unity by taking the world to be self-sufficient, or by regarding the gods as otiose, 1006; The Sankhya philosophy dispenses with extrahuman Powers, but recognizes the soul—Buddhism ignores both, 1007; Greek materialism, 1008. General Survey of the Theistic Development, 1009 ff. Intervention of gods fixed by appeal to natural law, 1010; Persistence of belief in miracles, 1011; Constitution of the deity constructed by philosophy, 1012; His moral character determined by that of his worshipers, 1013.  
CHAPTER X. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF RELIGION 481
The external history of religion a history of social growth, 1014-1016.  
External Worship. Establishment of relations with Powers, 1017, 1018; by processes, 1019-1021; by gifts, 1022, 1023; by messengers, 1024, 1025; Blood is placatory as a gift of food, 1026; Human sacrifice, 1027-1031; Dances and processions, 1032; Preponderant importance of ordinary sacrifices—the various kinds, 1033-1035; Elaboration of the sacrificial ritual, 1036.  
Theories of the Origin of Sacrifice. Their formulation late, 1037; Bloody and unbloody offerings equal in expiatory virtue, 1038; Two groups of theories of origin, 1039: the offering as gift, 1040, 1041; as effecting union between deity and worshiper, 1042: by sharing the flesh of a sacred animal (Smith and Frazer), 1043-1047; Self-sacrifice of a god, 1048; Union through a sanctified victim (Hubert and Mauss), 1049, 1050; Union with the Infinite effected by all religious acts (Tiele), 1051, 1052; Persistence of these conceptions of sacrifice 1053, 1054.  
Ritual. Its growth in elaborateness along with the growth of social forms, 1055-1061.  
Priests. Regulation of the life, physical and moral, of priests and priestesses, 1062-1065; Origin of religious prostitution; secular and religious explanations, 1066; Organization and influence of the priesthood: Egyptian, 1067; Babylonian and Assyrian, 1068; Palestinian, 1069; Hindu, 1070; Persian, 1071; Greek, 1073; Roman, 1073; Chinese, 1074; Peruvian and Mexican, 1075; Influence for good and for evil, 1076-1079; No priesthood in Islam or in Judaism after 70 A.D., 1080; Its function in some Christian churches, 1080.  
Worship. Early places of worship, 1081-1082; Development of temples, 1083-1086; Forms of worship: offerings, hymns, music, 1087, 1088; Festivals, 1089; Vows, blessings, curses, 1090; Idols: their formal development, 1091, 1092; Conception of their personality, 1093; Religious function of idolatry, 1094.  
Churches. Individualism called forth voluntary associations, 1095; Savage secret societies, 1096; Greek mysteries, 1097-1099; Whether the Semites produced mysteries, 1100; Rise of the idea of the church in the Græco-Roman world, 1101: Philosophy produced no church, 1102-1105; True churches produced by Buddhism and Jainism, 1106, 1107; not by Judaism and Mazdaism, 1108, 1109; Development of the Christian idea of the church, 1110-1112; A church called forth by the cult of Mithra, 1113; not by that of Isis or that of Sarapis, 1114; The Manichæan church, 1115; As to Islam and certain associations that have arisen within it (Mahdism, Drusism, etc.), 1116; Ecclesiastical power of the Peruvian Inca, 1117; Hindu and Persian movements, 1118-1120.  
Monachism. Its dualistic root, 1121; India its birthplace, 1122; Trace in Egypt (the Sarapeum), 1123; Therapeutae, 1124; Essenes, 1125; Christian monachism, 1126; Religious influence of monachism, 1127.  
Sacred Books. Their origin and collection, 1128; Canons: Buddhist, 1129; Jewish, 1130; Christian, 1131; Mazdean, 1132; Islamic, 1133; Religious influence of sacred books, 1134-1136; General influence of churches, 1137-1140.  
Universal Religions. Actual diffusion the test of universality, 1141; As to Buddhism, 1142; Judaism, 1143; Christianity, 1144; Zoroastrianism, 1145; Islam, 1146; So tested no existing religion is universal, 1147.  
Classification of Religions. Their resemblances and differences, 1148; Points in common, 1149; Proposed systems of classification, and objections to them: according to grade of general culture, 1150; division into national religions and those founded each by a single person, 1151; religions of redemption, 1151; Religious unity, savage and civilized, 1152; Disadvantages of tabulated classifications of religions, 1153.  

CHAPTER XI. SCIENTIFIC AND ETHICAL ELEMENTS IN RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS

572
Spheres of religion, science and constructive ethics distinct, but tend to coalesce, 1154.  
The Scientific Element. When science clashes with religion, 1155: Phases in the relation between the two: when there is no knowledge of natural law—a crude conception of unity—no place for the miraculous, 1156; Rise of highly personalized deities who stand outside the world: age of miracles, 1157; Recognition of the domination of natural law—separation between science and religion, 1158; Higher conception of the unity of God and the world, 1159; Scientific theories held to be not a part of the content of religion, 1160.  
The Ethical Element. Religion adopts current ethical customs and codes, 1161; Both good, 1162; and bad, 1163; Mutual influence of religion and ethics, 1164, 1165; Religion infuses nobility and tenderness into ethics, 1166; Religious personalities; martyr, saint, 1167, 1169; Evil influence of religion on ethics, 1169; Contribution of religion to the sense of obligation to do right, 1170; Answers of religion to questions concerning the existence of moral evil, 1171; concerning man's moral capacity, 1172; concerning the essential goodness or badness of the world, 1173.  
BIBLIOGRAPHY 585
INDEX 625