Slavery as an industrial system

The savage tribes of the Malay Peninsula are divided into the Semang, the Sakai and the Jakun.

Among the Sakai, according to De Morgan “the debtor and his family work for the creditor during one or two moons, according to the decision of the panghulu (village-chief)”. This certainly is a commencement of debt-slavery; but such compulsory labour, limited beforehand to one or two months, is not yet slavery in the true sense.

Skeat and Blagden state that, among the Benua-Jakun, crimes of all kinds might be expatiated by the payment of fines. If the offender failed to pay the fine, he became the slave of his victim. No more details being added, the existence of slavery does not seem to us to be quite certain.

As neither in Skeat and Blagden’s exhaustive work, nor in the other books and articles we have consulted, any further mention is made of slaves, we are justified in concluding that these tribes, with the exception perhaps of a division of the Jakun, do not practise slavery325.

Brenner and Junghuhn speak of the Battas of Sumatra in general as keeping slaves326.

The existence or former existence of slavery is sufficiently proved with regard to the following divisions of the Battas:

• Battas on the Pane and Bila rivers327,
• Battas,, of Mandheling328,
• Battas,, of Pertibie329, [111]
• Karo Battas330,
• Raja Battas331,
• Battas of Angkola332,
• Battas,, of Simelungun333,
• Battas,, of Singkel and Pak-pak334,
• Battas,, of the country of Panei335.

Among the Battas of Silindung slavery has never existed, according to Meerwaldt336. Whether he means only slavery in the restricted sense, or also pawning, is not clear.

The Toba Battas, according to Meerwaldt, formerly had slaves; but now slavery is dying out under Dutch influence. Van Dijk, who visited the Habinsaran district in the Toba-lands, states that in some parts of the district there were slaves, in others there were not. Whether the latter fact is to be accounted for by Dutch influence, does not appear from his very short notes337.

On the Lubus we have found only two short articles, in which slavery is not mentioned; but this does not prove very much338.

None of the describers of the Kubus make any mention of slaves; so we may suppose, that slavery does not exist among them339.

De Groot gives a detailed account of slavery and pawning in the Lampong districts340.

In Nias slavery certainly exists341.

The Mentawei Islanders very probably have no slaves. None of their describers make any mention of slavery342. “Their whole warfare consists of treacherous attacks, in which nobody’s life is spared”343. [112]

On the Anambas, Natuna and Tambelan Islands, belonging to the Lingga-Riouw group, there are debtor-slaves344.

Most of the writers on Enggano make no mention of slavery345. According to Walland, the Engganese wear ornaments in their ear-laps, which are pierced for that purpose. If anybody’s ear-lap is broken, he incurs great disgrace; he is no longer listened to in any deliberation, nor considered a notable in his tribe, and becomes the slave of his relatives, for whom he is obliged to work. And Rosenberg says: “If a criminal does not pay the fine, this is done by his kindred; but if they are unable to pay, they sell him as a slave. So slavery exists; but it is of a very mild kind, and the number of slaves is very small”346. The fact that both authors speak of slavery only in connection with these particular cases, whereas the others do not speak of it at all, makes us doubt, whether what Walland and Rosenberg call slavery is slavery in the true sense. So we cannot come to a clear conclusion.

Among the Hill- or Land-Dyaks (Orang Gunong) slavery in the restricted sense and slave-trade did not exist, but, says Low: “the system of slave-debtors is carried on, though to a very small extent”. Later on this kind of slavery also disappeared347.

The Dyaks on the Barito have slaves and pawns348.

The Sea-Dyaks also keep slaves, but not many349.

Slavery equally exists among the

• Dyaks on Rejang river350,
• Biadju-Dyaks351,
• Ot-danoms352,
• Olo-ngadju353, [113]
• Dyaks of Tompassuk354,
• Kayans on the Mendalam355,
• Kayans on the Upper Mahakam356,
• Muruts357,
• Dyaks of Sambas358,
• Kindjin Dyaks359,
• Dyaks of Pasir360.

Denison informs us that the Dusuns have no slaves361.

Von Dewall, in his notes on the Dyaks of Matan or Kaping, speaks of slaves of the chief. Whether these are the only slaves does not appear362.

Of the Dyaks of Simpang he says the same, and adds that pawning is unknown amongst them. Here too we cannot arrive at a clear conclusion363.

The Rambai- and Sebruang-Dyaks probably have no slaves; for it is stated, that their chiefs have no privileges; only, when some accident, illness for instance, prevents them from cultivating their own rice-fields, this is done by the people364. If there were slaves, the chiefs would not have to cultivate their own rice-fields. Moreover our informant, in his fairly detailed description, would probably have mentioned slavery, if it existed.

Slavery is proved by good authorities to exist or have existed in several parts of this island. Such is the case

• in the Minahassa365,
• in Bolaäng Mongondou366,
• in Lipu lo Holontalo367, [114]
• in Buool368,
• among the Toradja of Central Celebes369,
• among the Tomori (East-Central Celebes)370,
• in the district of Sandjai371,
• in Bangkala372,
• among the Kailirese of Donggala or Banawa373,
• in Saleyer, an island near the South Coast of Celebes374.

Slavery on these islands seems almost universal. About the following islands and groups of islands we have been able to obtain some information:

• Sumbawa375,
• Sumba376,
• Flores377,
• Solor group378,
• Bonerate and Kalao379,
• East Timor380,
• West Timor381,
• Savu382,
• Rote or Rotti383,
• Wetar384,
• Keisar385,
• Leti386,
• Dama387, [115]
• Luang-Sermata group388,
• Babar group389,
• Tenimber and Timorlao Islands390,
• Aru Islands391,
• Kei Islands392,
• Watubela Islands393,
• Seranglao-Gorong group394,
• Serang395,
• Ambon and the Uliase396,
• Sangi and Talauer Islands397.

In all these cases it is clear, that slavery either formerly existed or still exists.

Slaves are also employed by the Galela and Tobelorese on Halmaheira398, and by the inhabitants of the district of Kau on the same island399.

Riedel states, that on Buru there were formerly slaves, and gives some details about slavery as it was carried on here. Wilken however says that there are neither slaves nor pawns400. Whether the latter means to say, that slavery did not exist at the time at which he was writing (1875), or that it had never existed, is not clear. Van der Miesen, writing in 1902, states that, if a man is unable to pay his debt, he is obliged to serve his creditor till his parents have collected the required sum401. No further mention of slavery or pawning is made in his detailed description. So we are left in doubt as to the former existence of slavery here.

The Tagals and Visayas, at the time of the conquista, already practised slavery on a large scale402. [116]

Slavery certainly exists among the Bagobos403, Manobos404, Maguindanaos and inhabitants of the Sulu islands405, and Samales406.

Among the Subanos slaves are sacrificed at funerals407. But whether these so-called slaves are really slaves, or persons captured or purchased for sacrificing purposes only, does not appear.

The Kiangans sell their debtors as slaves; whether within the tribe or abroad we are not told408.

In Blumentritt’s rather short article on the Bungians no mention is made of slaves409.

From Venturillo’s and Miller’s descriptions it appears that slavery is unknown among the Bataks of Palawan410.

Jenks, in his minute account of the Bontoc Igorot of Northern Luzon, gives a full description of the division of labour among them. The poor serve the rich for wages. Slaves are not mentioned. Under the heading of “conquest” he remarks: “Certain Igorot, as those of Asin, make forcible conquests on their neighbours and carry away persons for slavery. But Bontoc has no such conquests”. Schadenberg, too, does not speak of slaves among the Bontoc people411. Hence we may safely infer that the Bontoc Igorot do not keep slaves.

About the other divisions of the Igorot we are not so well informed. From Jenks’s above-quoted incidental remark it would appear that some of them practise slavery. But as in the other sources412 we do not find anything strengthening this presumption, we cannot arrive at a positive conclusion.

Reed, describing the Negritos of Zambales (along the western coast of Luzon), says: “Notwithstanding the statements of Montano that the Negritos have no slaves and know nothing of slavery, the reverse is true, in Zambales at least; so say the Negritos and also the Filipinos who have spent several years among them. The word “a-li-pun” is used among them to [117]express such social condition. As has been stated, a man caught steeling may become a slave, as also may a person captured from another rancheria, a child left without support, a person under death sentence, or a debtor. It was also stated that if a man committed a crime and escaped a relative could be seized as a slave. It will take a long acquaintance with the Negritos and an intimate knowledge of their customs to get at the truth of these statements”. From this last sentence, together with the fact that the other writers on the Negritos we have consulted do not make any mention of slavery, we must infer that it is doubtful whether slavery exists among the Negritos413.