Rolph (William Henry), German philosopher, b. of English father, Berlin, 26 Aug. 1847. He became privat-docent of Zoology in the University of Leipsic, and wrote an able work on Biological Problems, ’84, in which he accepts evolution, discards theology, and places ethics on a natural basis. Died 1 Aug. 1883.

Romagnosi (Giovanni Domenico), Italian philosopher and jurist, b. Salso Maggiore, 13 Dec. 1761. He published in 1791 an able work on penal legislation, Genesis of Penal Law, many pages of which are borrowed from d’Holbach’s System of Nature. He became Professor of Law in Parma, Milan, and Pavia. A member of the Italian Academy, he was named professor at Corfu, where he died 8 June, 1835. In ’21 he wrote Elements of Philosophy, followed by What is a Sound Mind? (’27) and Ancient Moral Philosophy, ’32. A somewhat obscure writer, he nevertheless contributed to the positive study of sociology.

Romiti (Guglielmo), Italian Positivist. Professor of Anatomy in the University of Siena. Has published Anatomical Notes, and a Discourse which excited some commotion among the theologians.

Romme (Gilbert), French Mathematician, b. Riou, 1750, became deputy to the Legislative Assembly in 1791, and to the Convention in 1792. In Sept. 1793 he introduced the new Republican Calendar, the plan of which was drawn by Lalande, and the names assigned by Fabre d’Eglantine. He advocated the Fêtes of Reason. Being condemned to death, he committed suicide, 18 June, 1795. His brother Charles, b. 1744, was also an eminent geometrician, and a friend of Laland. He died 15 June, 1805.

Ronge (Johannes), German religious reformer, b. Bischopwalde (Silesia), 16 Oct. 1813. He entered the seminary of Breslau, and became a Catholic priest in ’40. His liberal views and bold preaching soon led to his suspension. In ’44 his letter denouncing the worship of “the holy coat,” exhibited by Arnoldi, Bishop of Treves, made much clamor. Excommunicated by the Church, he found many free congregations, but was proscribed after the revolution of ’49 and took refuge in England. In ’51 he issued a revolutionary manifesto. In ’61 he returned to Frankfort, and in ’73 settled at Darmstadt. Died at Vienna, 25 Oct. 1887.

Ronsard (Pierre), French poet, b. of noble family 11 Sept. 1524. He became page to the Duke of Orleans, and afterwards to James V. of Scotland. Returning to France, he was a great favorite at the French Court. Died 27 Dec. 1585.

Roorda van Eysinga (Sicco Ernst Willem), Dutch positivist, b. Batavia (Java), 8 Aug. 1825. He served as engineer at Java, and was expelled about ’64 for writing on behalf of the Javanese. He contributed to the De Dageraad and Revue Positive. Died Clarens (Switzerland), 23 Oct. 1887.

Roquetaillade (Jean de la), also known as Rupescina, early French reformer of Auvillac (Auvergne), who entered the order of the Franciscans. His bold discourses led to his imprisonment at Avignon 1356, by order of Innocent VI., when he wrote an apology. Accused of Magic, Nostradamus says he was burnt at Avignon in 1362, but this has been disputed.

Rose (Charles H.), formerly of Adelaide, Australia, author of A Light to Lighten the Gentiles, 1881.

Rose (Ernestine Louise) née Süsmond Potowsky, Radical reformer and orator, b. Peterkov (Poland), 13 Jan. 1810. Her father was a Jewish Rabbi. From early life she was of a bold and inquiring disposition. At the age of 17 she went to Berlin. She was in Paris during the Revolution of ’30. Soon after she came to England where she embraced the views of Robert Owen, who called her his daughter. Here she married Mr. William E. Rose, a gentleman of broad Liberal views. In May ’36, they went to the United States and became citizens of the Republic. Mrs. Rose lectured in all the states on the social system, the formation of character, priestcraft, etc. She lectured against slavery in the slave-owning states and sent in ’38 the first petition to give married women the right to hold real estate. She was one of the inaugurators of the Woman’s Rights Movement, and a constant champion of Freethought. An eloquent speaker, some of her addresses have been published. Defence of Atheism, Women’s Rights and Speech at the Hartford Bible Convention in ’54. About ’73 she returned to England where she still lives. One of her last appearances at public was at the Conference of Liberal Thinkers at South Place Chapel in ’76, where she delivered a pointed speech. Mrs. Rose has a fine face and head, and though aged and suffering, retains the utmost interest in the Freethought cause.

Roskoff (Georg Gustav), German rationalist, b. Presburg, Hungary, 30 Aug. 1814. He studied theology and philosophy at Halle, and has written works on Hebrew Antiquity, ’57. The Samson legend and Herakles myth, ’60, and a standard History of the Devil in 2 vols., Leipzig, ’69.

Ross (William Stewart), Scotch writer, b. 20 Mar. 1844. Author of poems and educational works, and editor of Secular Review, now The Agnostic Journal. Wrote God and his Book, ’87, and several brochures published under the pen name of “Saladin.”

Rosseau (Leon), French writer in the Rationalist of Geneva under the name of L. Russelli. He published separately the Female Followers of Jesus, founded the Horizon, contributed to la Libre Pensée, and was editor of l’Athée. Died 1870.

Rossetti (Dante Gabriel), poet and painter, b. of Italian parents, London, 12 May, 1828. Educated at King’s College, he became a student at the Royal Academy and joined the pre-Raphaelites. As a poet artist he exhibited the richest gifts of originality, earnestness, and splendour of expression. Died at Westgate on Sea, 9 April, 1882.

Rossetti (William Michael) critic and man of letters, brother of the preceding, b. London, 25 Sep. 1829. Educated at King’s College, he became assistant secretary in the Inland Revenue Office. He has acted as critic for many papers and edited many works, the chief being an edition of Shelley, ’70, with a memoir and numerous notes. He is Chairman of the Committee of the Shelley Society.

Rossmaessler (Emil Adolf), German naturalist b. Leipsic 3 March, 1806. Studied theology, but abandoned it for science, and wrote many scientific works of repute. In ’48 he was elected to Parliament. Among his writings are Man in the Mirror of Nature. ’49–55. The History of the Earth, ’68. Died as a philosopher 8 April, 1867.

Roth (Julius), Dr., German author of Religion and Priestcraft, Leipzig, 1869; Jesuitism, ’71.

Rothenbuecher (Adolph), Dr., German author of an able little Handbook of Morals, written from the Secular standpoint, Cottbus, 1884.

Rotteck (Karl Wenceslaus von), German historian and statesman b. Freiburg 18 July, 1775. Studied in his native town, where in 1798 be became Professor of History. In 1819 he represented his University in the States of Baden, where he distinguished himself by his liberal views. He was forbidden by government to edit any paper and was deprived of his chair. This persecution hastened his death, which occurred 26 Nov 1840. Rotteck’s General History of the World (9 vols., 1827) was very popular and gave one of the broadest views of history which had then appeared.

Rousseau (Jean Jacques), Swiss philosopher, b. Geneva, 28 June, 1712. After a varied career he went to Paris in 1741 and supported himself. In 1751 he obtained a prize from the academy of Dijon for negative answer to the question “whether the re-establishment of the arts and sciences has conduced to the purity of morals.” This success prompted further literary efforts. He published a dictionary of music, the New Heloise (1759), a love story in the form of letters, which had great success, and Emilius (May 1762), a moral romance, in which he condemns other education than that of following nature. In this work occurs his Confession of Faith of a Savoyard Vicar, discarding the supernatural element in Christianity. The French parliament condemned the book 9 June, 1762, and prosecuted the writer, who fled to Switzerland. Pope Clement XVIII fulminated against Emile, and Rousseau received so many insults on account of his principles that he returned to Paris and on the invitation of Hume came to England in Jan. 1766. He knew little English and soon took offence with Hume, and asked permission to return to Paris, which he obtained on condition of never publishing anything more. He however completed his Confessions, of which he had previously composed the first six books in England. Rousseau was a sincere sentimentalist, an independent and eloquent, but not deep thinker. His captious temper spoiled his own life, but his influence has been profound and far-reaching. Died near Paris, 2 July, 1778.

Rouzade (Leonie) Madame, French Freethought lecturess. Has written several brochures and novels, notably Le Monde Renversé, 1872, and Ci et ca, ca et la, ideas upon moral philosophy and social progress. Writes in Malon’s Revue Socialiste, and is one of the editors of Les Droits des Femmes.

Roy (Joseph), French translator of Feuerbach’s Essence of Christianity, 1864, and Religion, Death, Immortality, ’66. Has also translated Marx’s Capital.

Royer (Clemence Auguste), French authoress, b. Nantes, 24 April, 1830, of Catholic royalist family. Visiting England in ’54, she studied our language and literature. Going to Switzerland, in ’59 she opened at Lausanne a course of logic and philosophy for women. In ’60 she shared with Proudhon in a prize competition on the subject of taxation. In ’62 she translated Darwin’s Origin of Species, with a bold preface and notes. In ’64 her philosophical romance The Twins of Hellas appeared at Brussels, and was interdicted in France. Her ablest work is on The Origin of Man and of Societies, ’69. In this she states the scientific view of human evolution, and challenges the Christian creed. This was followed by many memoirs, Pre-historic Funeral Rites, ’76; Two Hypotheses of Heredity, ’77; The Good and the Moral Law, ’81. Mdlle. Royer has contributed to the Revue Moderne, Revue de Philosophie, Positive, Revue d’Anthropologie, etc., and has assisted and spoken at many political, social, and scientific meetings.

Rüdt (P. A.), Ph. D., German lecturer and “apostle of unbelief,” b. Mannheim, 8 Dec. 1844. Educated at Mannheim and Carlsruhe, he studied philosophy, philology, and jurisprudence at Heidelberg University, ’65–69. Dr. Rüdt became acquainted with Lassalle, and started a paper, Die Waffe, and in ’70 was imprisoned for participation in social democratic agitation. From ’74 to ’86 he lived in St. Petersburg as teacher, and has since devoted himself to Freethought propaganda. Several of his addresses have been published.

Ruelle (Charles Claude), French writer, b. Savigny, 1810. Author of The History of Christianity, ’66, and La Schmita, ’69.

Ruge (Arnold), German reformer, b. Bergen (Isle Rügen), 13 Sept. 1802. Studied at Halle, Jena, and Heidelberg, and as a member of the Tugenbund was imprisoned for six years. After his liberation in ’30 he became professor at Halle, and with Echtermeyer founded the Hallische Jahrbücher, ’38, which opposed Church and State. In ’48 he started Die Reform. Elected to the Frankfort Assembly, he sat on the Extreme Left. When compelled to fly he came to England, where he wrote New Germany in “Cabinet of Reason” series, and translated Buckle’s History of Civilisation. He acted as visiting tutor at Brighton, where he died 30 Dec. 1880.

Ruggieri (Cosmo), Florentine philosopher and astrologer, patronised by Catherine de Medicis. He began to publish Almanachs in 1604, which he issued annually. He died at Paris in 1615, declaring himself an Atheist, and his corpse was in consequence denied Christian burial.

Rumpf (Johann Wilhelm), Swiss author of Church, Faith, and Progress, and The Bible and Christ, a criticism (Strasburg, 1858). Edited Das Freire Wort (Basle, ’56).

Russell (John). See Amberley.

Ryall (Malthus Questell), was secretary of the Anti-Persecution Union, 1842, and assisted his friend Mr. Holyoake on The Oracle of Reason and The Movement. Died 1846.

Rydberg (Abraham Viktor), Swedish man of Letters, b. Jönköping, 18 Dec. 1829. He has written many works of which we mention The Last Athenian Roman Days, and The Magic of the Middle Ages, which have been translated into English.

Rystwick (Herman van), early Dutch heretic who denied hell and taught that the soul was not immortal, but the elements of all matter eternal. He was sent to prison in 1499, and set at liberty upon abjuring his opinion, but having published them a second time, he was arrested at the Hague, and burnt to death in 1511.

Sabin (Ibn), Al Mursi, Spanish Arabian philosopher, b. Murcia about 1218 of noble family. About 1249 he corresponded with Frederick II., replying to his philosophical questions. Committed suicide about 1271.

Sadoc, a learned Jewish doctor in the third century B.C. He denied the resurrection, the existence of angels, and the doctrine of predestination, and opposed the idea of future rewards and punishments. His followers were named after him, Sadducees.

Saga (Francesco) de Rovigo, Italian heretic, put to death for Anti-Trinitarianism at Venice, 25 Feb. 1566.

Saigey (Emile), French inspector of telegraph wires. Wrote Modern Physics, 1867, and The Sciences in the Eighteenth Century: Physics of Voltaire, ’74. Died 1875.

Saillard (F.), French author of The Revolution and the Church (Paris, ’69), and The Organisation of the Republic, ’83.

Sainte Beuve (Charles Augustin), French critic and man of letters b. Boulogne, 23 Dec. 1804. Educated in Paris, he studied medicine, which he practised several years. A favorable review of V. Hugo’s Odes and Ballades gained him the intimacy of the Romantic school. As a critic he made his mark in ’28 with his Historical and Critical Picture of French Poetry in the Sixteenth Century. His other principal works are his History of Port Royal, ’40–62; Literary Portraits, ’32–39; and Causeries du Lundi, ’51–57. In ’45 he was elected to the Academy, and in ’65 was made a senator. As a critic he was penetrative, comprehensive, and impartial.

Saint Evremond (Charles de Marguetel de Saint Denis) seigneur de, French man of letters, b. St. Denys-le-Guast (Normandy), 1 April, 1713. He studied law, but subsequently entered the army and became major-general. He was confined in the Bastile for satirising Cardinal Mazarin. In England he was well received at the court of Charles II. He died in London, 20 Sept. 1703, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Asked on his death-bed if he wished to reconcile himself to God, he replied, he desired to reconcile himself to appetite. His works, consisting of essays, letters, poems, and dramas, were published in 3 vols. 1705.

Saint-Glain (Dominique de), French Spinozist, b. Limoges, about 1620. He went into Holland that he might profess the Protestant religion more freely; was captain in the service of the States, and assisted on the Rotterdam Gazette. Reading Spinoza, he espoused his system, and translated the Tractatus Theologico-Politicus into French, under the title of La Clef du Sanctuaire, 1678. This making much noise, and being in danger of prosecution, he changed the title to Ceremonies Superstitieuses des Juifs, and also to Reflexions Curieuses d’un Esprit Desintéressé, 1678.

Saint-Hyacinthe (Themiseul de Cordonnier de), French writer, b. Orleans, 24 Sept. 1684. Author of Philosophical Researches, published at Rotterdam, 1743. Died near Breda (Holland), 1746. Voltaire published his Diner Du Comte de Boulainvilliers under the name of St. Hyacinthe.

Saint John (Henry). See Bolingbroke, Lord.

Saint Lambert (Charles, or rather Jean François de), French writer, b. Nancy, 16 Dec. 1717. After being educated among the Jesuits he entered the army, and was admired for his wit and gallantry. He became a devoted adherent of Voltaire and an admirer of Madame du Chatelet. He wrote some articles in the Encyclopédie, and many fugitive pieces and poems in the literary journals. His poem, the Seasons, 1769 procured him admission to the Academy. He published essays on Helvetius and Bolingbroke, and Le Catéchisme Universel. His Philosophical Works were published in 1801. Died Paris, 9 Feb. 1803.

Sale (George), English Oriental scholar, b. Kent, 1680, educated at Canterbury. He was one of a society which undertook to publish a Universal History, and was also one of the compilers of the General Dictionary. His most important work was a translation of the Koran, with a preliminary discourse and explanatory notes, 1734. He was one of the founders of the Society for the Encouragement of Learning. Died 14 Nov. 1736.

Salieres (A.), contributor to l’Athée, 1870. Has written a work on Patriotism, 1881.

Sallet (Friedrich von), German pantheist poet of French descent, b. Neisse (Silesia), 20 April, 1812. An officer in the army, he was imprisoned for writing a satire on the life of a trooper. In ’34 he attended Hegel’s lectures at Berlin, and in ’38 quitted the army. He wrote a curious long poem entitled the Layman’s Gospel, in which he takes New Testament texts and expounds them pantheistically—the God who is made flesh is replaced by the man who becomes God. Died Reichau (Silesia), 21 Feb. 1843.

Salmeron y Alonso (Nicolas), Spanish statesman, b. Alhama lo Seco, 1838. Studied law, and became a Democratic journalist; a deputy to the Cortes in 1871, and became President thereof during the Republic of ’73. He wrote a prologue to the work of Giner on Philosophy and Arts, ’78, and his own works were issued in 1881.

Salt (Henry Stephens), English writer, b. India, 20 Sept. 1851; educated at Eton, where he became assistant master. A contributor to Progress, he has written Literary Sketches, ’88. A monograph on Shelley, and a Life of James Thomson, “B.V.”, 1889.

Saltus (Edgar Evertson), American author, b. New York 8 June 1858. Studied at Concord, Paris, Heidelberg and Munich. In ’84 he published a sketch of Balzac. Next year appeared The Philosophy of Disenchantment, appreciative and well written views of Schopenhauer and Hartmann. This was followed by The Anatomy of Negation, a sketchy account of some atheists and sceptics from Kapila to Leconte de Lisle, ’86. Has also written several novels, and Eden, an episode, ’89. His brother Francis is the author of Honey and Gall, a book of poems (Philadelphia, ’73.)

Salverte (Anne Joseph Eusèbe Baconniere de), French philosopher, b. Paris, 18 July, 1771. He studied among the Oratorians. Wrote Epistle to a Reasonable Woman, an Essay on What should be Believed, 1793, contributed to Maréchal’s Dictionnaire des Athées, published an eloge on Diderot, 1801, and many brochures, among others a tragedy on the Death of Jesus Christ. Elected deputy in ’28, he was one of the warm partisans of liberty, and in ’30, demanded that Catholicism should not be recognised as the state religion. He is chiefly remembered by his work on The Occult Sciences, ’29, which was translated into English, ’46. To the French edition of ’56 Littré wrote a Preface. He died 27 Oct. 1839. On his death bed he refused religious offices.

Sand (George), the pen name of Amandine Lucile Aurore Dupin, afterwards baroness Dudnevant, French novelist, b. Paris, 1 July, 1804, and brought up by her grandmother at the Château de Nohant. Reading Rousseau and the philosophers divorced her from Catholicism. She remained a Humanitarian. Married Sept. 1822, Baron Dudnevant, an elderly man who both neglected and ill-treated her, and from whom after some years she was glad to separate at the sacrifice of her whole fortune. Her novels are too many to enumerate. The Revolution of ’48 drew her into politics, and she started a journal and translated Mazzini’s Republic and Royalty in Italy, Died at her Chateau of Nohant, 8 June, 1876. Her name was long obnoxious in England, where she was thought of as an assailant of marriage and religion, but a better appreciation of her work and genius is making way.

Sarcey (Franscique), French critic, b. Dourdan, 8 Oct. 1828, editor of Le XIXe. Siècle, has written plays, novels, and many anti-clerical articles.

“Sarrasi,” pseudonym of A. de C....; French Orientalist b. Department of Tarn, 1837, author of L’Orient Devoilé, ’80, in which he shows the mythical elements in Christianity.

Saull (William Devonshire), English geologist, b. 1783. He established a free geological museum, contributed to the erection of the John Street Institute, and was principally instrumental in opening the old Hall of Science, City Road. He wrote on the connection between astronomy, geology, etc. He died 26 April, 1855, and is buried in Kensal Green, near his friends, Allen Davenport and Henry Hetherington.

Saunderson (Nicholas), English mathematician b. Thurleston (Yorkshire), 2 Jan. 1682. He lost both his eyes and his sight by small pox when but a year old, yet he became conversant with Euclid, Archimedes, and Diophantus, when read to him in Greek. He lectured at Cambridge University, explaining Newton’s Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, and even his works on light and color. It was said, “They have turned out Whiston for believing in but one God, and put in Saunderson, who believes in no God at all.” Saunderson said that to believe in God he must first touch him. Died 19 April, 1739.

Sauvestre (Charles), French journalist, b. Mans. 1818, one of the editors of L’Opinion Nationale. Has written on The Clergy and Education (’61), Monita Secreta Societatis Jesu; Secret Instructions of the Jesuits (’65), On the Knees of the Church (’68), Religious Congregations Unveiled (’70), and other anti-clerical works. He died at Paris in 1883.

Saville (Sir George), Marquis of Halifax, English statesman, b. Yorkshire, 1630. He became President of the Council in the reign of James II., but was dismissed for opposing the repeal of the Test Acts. He wrote several pieces and memoirs. Burnet gives a curious account of his opinions, which he probably tones down.

Sawtelle (C. M.), American author of Reflections on the Science of Ignorance, or the art of teaching others what you don’t know yourself, Salem, Oregon, 1868.

Sbarbaro (Pietro), Italian publicist and reformer, b. Savona, 1838; studied jurisprudence. He published a work on The Philosophy of Research, ’66. In ’70 he dedicated to Mauro Macchi a book on The Task of the Nineteenth Century, and presided at a congress of Freethinkers held at Loreto. Has written popular works on the Conditions of Human Progress, the Ideal of Democracy, and an essay entitled From Socino to Mazzini, ’86.

Schade (Georg), German Deist, b. Apenrade, 1712. He believed in the immortality of brutes. In 1770 he was imprisoned for his opinions on the Isle of Christiansoe. He settled at Kiel, Holstein, in 1775, where he died in 1795.

Scherer (Edmond), French critic and publicist, b. Paris 8 April, 1815. Of Protestant family, he became professor of exegesis at Geneva, but his views becoming too free, he resigned his chair and went to Strasburg, where he became chief of the School of Liberal Protestants, and in the Revue de Théologie et de Philosophie Chrétienne, ’50–60, put forward views which drew down a tempest from the orthodox. He also wrote in the Bibliotheque Universelle and Revue des Deux-Mondes. Some of his articles have been collected as Mélanges de Critique Religieuse, ’60; and Mélanges d’Histoire Religieuse, ’64. He was elected deputy in ’71, and sat with the Republicans of the Left. Died 1889.

Scherr (Johannes), German author, b. Hohenrechberg, 3 Oct. 1817. Educated at Zürich and Tübingen, he wrote in ’43 with his brother Thomas a Popular History of Religious and Philosophical Ideas, and in ’57 a History of Religion, in three parts. In ’60 he became Professor of History and Literature at Zürich, and has written many able literary studies, including histories of German and English literature. Died at Zürich, 21 Nov. 1887.

Schiff (Johan Moriz), German physiologist, b. Frankfort, 1823. Educated at Berlin and Gottingen, he became Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Berne, ’54–63; of Physiology at Florence, ’63–76, and at Genoa. Has written many physiological treatises, which have been attacked as materialistic.

Schiller (Johann Christoph Friedrich von), eminent German poet and historian, b. Marbech, 10 Nov. 1759. His mother wished him to become a minister, but his tastes led him in a different direction. A friend of Goethe, he enriched German literature with numerous plays and poems, a History of the Netherlands Revolt, and of the Thirty Years’ War. He died in the prime of mental life at Weimar, 9 May, 1805.

Schmidt (Eduard Oskar), German zoologist, b. Torgau, 21 Feb. 1823. He travelled widely, and became professor of natural history at Jena. Among the first of Germans to accept Darwinism, he has illustrated its application in many directions, and published an able work on The Doctrine of Descent and Darwinism in the “International Scientific Series.” Died at Strasburg, 17 Jan. 1886.

Schmidt (Kaspar), German philosopher, b. Bayreuth, 25 Oct. 1806. Studied at Berlin, Erlangen, and Königsberg, first theology, then philosophy. Under the pseudonym of “Max Stirner” he wrote a system of individualism The Only One, and His Possession (Der Einzige und sein Eigenthum), ’45. He also wrote a History of Reaction in two parts (Berlin, ’52), and translated Smith’s Wealth of Nations and Say’s Text-book of Political Economy. Died at Berlin, 25 June, 1856.

Schneeberger (F. J.), Austrian writer, b. Vienna, 7 Sept, 1827. Has written some popular novels under the name of “Arthur Storch,” and was one of the founders of the German Freethinkers’ Union.

Schœlcher ( Victor), French philosophist, b. Paris, 21 July 1804. While still young he joined the secret society Aide-toi, le ciel t’aidera, and studied social questions. He devoted himself from about ’26 to advocating the abolition of slavery, and wrote many works on the subject. On 3 March, ’48, he was made Under Secretary of the Navy, and caused a decree to be issued by the Provisional Government enfranchising all slaves on French territory. He was elected Deputy for Martinique ’48 and ’49. After 2 Dec. ’51, he came to London, where he wrote occasionally in the Reasoner and National Reformer. He returned to France during the war, and took part in the defence of Paris. In ’71 he was again returned for Martinique, and in ’75 he was elected a life senator.

Scholl (Aurélien), French journalist, b. Bordeaux, 14 July, 1833. He began life as a writer on the Corsaire, founded Satan, Le Nain Jaune, etc., and writes on l’Evénement. Has written several novels, and le Procès de Jésus Christ, ’77.

Scholl (Karl), German writer and preacher to the Free religious bodies of Mannheim and Heidelberg, b. Karlsruhe, 17 Aug. 1820. He became a minister ’44, but was suspended for his free opinions in ’45. His first important work was on the Messiah Legend of the East (Hamburg, ’52), and in ’61 he published a volume on Free Speech, a collection of extracts from French, English, and American Freethinkers. In ’70 he started a monthly journal of the Religion of Humanity, Es Werde Licht! which continued for many years. Has published many discourses, and written Truth from Ruins, ’73, and on Judaism and the Religion of Humanity, ’79.

Schopenhauer (Arthur), German pessimist philosopher, b. Danzig, 22 Feb. 1788. The son of a wealthy and well-educated merchant and a vivacious lady, he was educated in French and English, and studied at Göttingen science, history, and the religions and philosophies of the East. After two visits to Italy, and an unsuccessful attempt to obtain pupils at Berlin, he took up his abode at Frankfort. In 1815 he wrote his chief work, The World as Will and Idea, translated into English in ’83. His philosophy is expressed in the title, will is the one reality, all else appearance. He also wrote The Two Ground Problems of Ethics, ’61, On the Freedom of Will, and a collection of essays entitled Parega and Paralipomena (’51). Died at Frankfort, 21 Sept. 1860. Schopenhauer was a pronounced Atheist, and an enemy of every form of superstition. He said that religions are like glow-worms; they require darkness to shine in.

Schroeter (Eduard), German American writer, b. Hannover, 4 June, 1810, studied theology at Jena; entered the Free-religious communion in ’45. In ’50, he went to America, living since ’53 in Sauk City, and frequently lecturing there. In ’81, he attended the International Conference of Freethinkers at Brussels. He was a constant contributor to the Freidenker, of Milwaukee, until his death 2 April, 1888.

Schroot (A.), German author of Visions and Ideas (Berlin, 1865), Natural Law and Human Will; Creation and Man, and Science and Life (Hamburg, 1873).

Schuenemann Pott (Friedrich), German American, b. Hamburg, 3 April, 1826. He joined the “Freie Gemeinde,” and was expelled from Prussia in ’48. After the Revolution he returned to Berlin and took part in democratic agitation, for which he was tried for high treason, but acquitted. In ’54 he removed to America, where he made lecturing tours over the States settling at San Francisco.

Schultze (Karl August Julius Fritz), German writer, b. Celle, 7 May, 1846, studied at Jena, Göttingen and Münich, has written an able study on Fetishism, Leipzig ’71, a pamphlet on Religion in German Schools, ’72, a History of the Philosophy of the Renaissance, ’74, and Kant and Darwin, ’75. In ’76, he was appointed Professor of Philosophy in Jena, since which he has written The Elements of Materialism, ’80, Philosophy of the Natural Sciences, 2 vols. ’81–82, and Elements of Spiritualism, 1883.

Schumann (Robert Alexander), German musical composer, b. Nekau, 8 July, 1810. He studied law at Leipsic, but forsook it for music. He started a musical journal ’34, which he edited for some years. His lyrical compositions are unsurpassed, and he also composed a “profane” oratorio, Paradise and the Peri (’40). His character and opinions are illustrated by his Letters. Died 29 July, 1856.

Schweichel (Georg Julius Robert), German writer, b. Königsberg, 12 July, 1821. He studied jurisprudence, but took to literature. Taking part in the events of ’48, after the reaction he went to Switzerland. Has written several novels dealing with Swiss life, also a Life of Auerbach. He wrote the preface to Dulk’s Irrgang des Leben’s Jesu, 1884.

Schweitzer (Jean Baptista von), German Socialist poet, b. Frankfort, 12 July, 1833. He studied law in Berlin and Heidelberg; became after Lassalle’s death president of the German Workmen’s Union, and was sent to Parliament in ’67. He wrote the Zeitgeist and Christianity, ’62, The Darwinians, ’75, and several other works. Died 28 July, 1875.

Scot (Reginald), English rationalist, author of The Discoverie of Witchcraft, 1584, the first English work to question the existence of witches. It was burnt by order of King James I, and was republished in 1886. Scot died in 1599.

Scott (Thomas), English scholar, b. 28 April 1808. In early life he travelled widely, lived with Indians and had been page to Chas. X, of France. Having investigated Christianity, he in later life devoted himself to Freethought propaganda by sending scholarly pamphlets among the clergy and cultured classes. From ’62–77, he issued from Mount Pleasant, Ramsgate, over a hundred different pamphlets by Bp. Hinds, F. W. Newman, Kalisch, Lestrange, Willis, Strange, etc., most of which were given away. He issued a challenge to the Christian Evidence Society, and wrote with Sir G. W. Cox, The English Life of Jesus ’71. Altogether his publications extend to twenty volumes. Little known outside his own circle, Thomas Scott did a work which should secure him lasting honor. Died at Norwood, 30 Dec. 1878.

Seaver (Horace Holley), American journalist, b. Boston, 25 Aug. 1810. In ’37 he became a compositor on the Boston Investigator, and during Kneeland’s imprisonment took the editorship, which he continued for upwards of fifty years during which he battled strenuously for Freethought in America. His articles were always very plain and to the point. A selection of them has been published with the title Occasional Thoughts (Boston, ’88). With Mr. Mendum, he helped the erection of the Paine Memorial Hall, and won the esteem of all Freethinkers in America. Died, 21 Aug. 1889. His funeral oration was delivered by Colonel Ingersoll.

Sebille (Adolphe), French writer, who, under the pseudonym of “Dr. Fabricus,” published God, Man, and his latter end, a medico-psychological study, 1868, and Letters from a Materialist to Mgr. Dupanloup, 1868–9.

Sechenov or Setchenoff (Ivan), Russian philosopher, who, in 1863, published Psychological Studies, explaining the mind by physiology. The work made a great impression in Russia, and has been translated into French by Victor Derély, and published in ’84 with an introduction by M. G. Wyrouboff.

Secondat (Charles de). See Montesquieu.

Seeley (John Robert), English historian and man of letters, b. London, 1834, educated at City of London School and Cambridge, where he graduated in ’57. In ’63, he was appointed Professor of Latin in London University. In ’66, appeared his Ecce Homo, a survey of the Life and Work of Jesus Christ, published anonymously, and which Lord Shaftesbury denounced in unmeasured terms as vomitted from the pit of hell. In ’69, he became professor of modern history at Cambridge, and has since written some important historical works as well as Natural Religion (’82). Prof. Seeley is president of the Ethical Society.

Segond (Louis August), French physician and Positivist, author of a plan of a positivist school to regenerate medicine, 1849, and of several medical works.

Seidel (Martin), Silesian Deist, of Olhau, lived at the end of the sixteenth century. He held that Jesus was not the predicted Messiah, and endeavored to propagate his opinion among the Polish Socinians. He wrote three Letters on the Messiah, The Foundations of the Christian Religion, in which he considered the quotation from the Old Testament in the new, and pointed out the errors of the latter.

Sellon (Edward), English archæologist, author of The Monolithic Temples of India; Annotations on the Sacred Writings of the Hindus, 1865, and other scarce works, privately printed.

Semerie (Eugène), French Positivist, b. Aix, 6 Jan. 1832. Becoming physician at Charenton, he studied mental maladies, and in ’67 published a work on Intellectual Symptoms of Madness, in which he maintained that the disordered mind went back from Positivism to metaphysics, theology, and then to fetishism. This work was denounced by the Bishop of Orleans. Dr. Semerie wrote A Simple Reply to M. Dupanloup, ’68. During the sieges of Paris he acted as surgeon and director of the ambulance. A friend of Pierre Lafitte, he edited the Politique Positive, and wrote Positivists and Catholics, ’73, and The Law of the Three States, ’75. Died at Grasse, May, 1884.

Semler (Johann Salomo), German critic, b. Saalfeld, 18 Dec. 1725. He was professor of theology at Halle and founder of historical Biblical criticism there. He translated Simon’s Critical History of the New Testament, and by asserting the right of free discussion drew down the wrath of the orthodox. Died at Halle, 4 March, 1791.

Serafini (Maria Alimonda), Italian authoress of a Catechism for Female Freethinkers (Geneva, 1869), and a work on Marriage and Divorce (Salerno, ’73).

Serveto y Reves (Miguel), better known as Michael Servetus, Spanish martyr, b. Villanova (Aragon), 1509. Intended for the Church, he left it for law, which he studied at Toulouse. He afterward studied medicine at Paris, and corresponded with Calvin on the subject of the Trinity, against which he wrote De Trinitatis Erroribus and Christianismi Restitutio, which excited the hatred of both Catholics and Protestants. To Calvin Servetus sent a copy of his last work. Calvin, through one Trie, denounced him to the Catholic authorities at Lyons. He was imprisoned, but escaped, and to get to Naples passed through Geneva, where he was seized at the instance of Calvin, tried for blasphemy and heresy, and burnt alive at a slow fire, 26 Oct. 1553.

Seume (Johann Gottfried), German poet, b. near Weissenfels, 29 Jan. 1763. He was sent to Leipsic, and intended for a theologian, but the dogmas disgusted him, and he left for Paris. He lived an adventurous life, travelled extensively, and wrote Promenade to Syracuse, 1802, and other works. Died at Teplitz, 13 June, 1810.

Sextus Empiricus, Greek sceptical philosopher and physician, who probably lived early in the third century of the Christian era. He left two works, one a summary of the doctrines of the sceptics in three books; the other an attack on all positive philosophy.

Shadwell (Thomas), English dramatist, b. Straton Hall, Norfolk, 1640. Although damned by Dryden in his Mac Flecknoe, Shadwell’s plays are not without merit, and illustrate the days of Charles II. Died 6 Dec. 1692.

Shaftesbury (Anthony Ashley Cooper), third Earl, b. London, 26 Feb. 1671. Educated by Locke, in 1693 he was elected M.P. for Poole, and proposed granting counsel to prisoners in case of treason. His health suffering, he resigned and went to Holland, where he made the acquaintance of Bayle. The excitement induced by the French Prophets occasioned his Letters upon Enthusiasm, 1708. This was followed, by his Moralists and Sensus Communis. In 1711 he removed to Naples, where he died 4 Feb. 1713. His collected works were published under the title of Characteristics, 1732. They went through several editions, and did much to raise the character of English Deism.

Shakespeare (William). The greatest of all dramatists, b. Stratford-on-Avon, 23 April, 1564. The materials for writing his life are slender. He married in his 19th year, went to London, where he became an actor and produced his marvellous plays, the eternal honor of English literature. Shakespeare gained wealth and reputation and retired to his native town, where he died April 23, 1616. His dramas warrant the inference that he was a Freethinker. Prof. J. R. Green says, “Often as his questionings turned to the riddle of life and death, and leaves it a riddle to the last without heeding the common theological solutions around him.” His comprehensive mind disdained endorsement of religious dogmas and his wit delighted in what the Puritans call profanity. Mr. Birch in his Inquiry into the Philosophy and Religion of Shakespeare, sustains the position that he was an Atheist.

Shaw (James Dickson), American writer, b. Texas, 27 Dec. 1841. Brought up on a cattle farm, at the Civil War he joined the Southern Army, took part in some battles, and was wounded. He afterwards entered the Methodist Episcopal ministry, ’70; studied biblical criticism to answer sceptics, and his own faith gave way. He left the Church in March, ’83, and started the Independent Pulpit at Waco, Texas, in which he publishes bold Freethought articles. He rejects all supernaturalism, and has written The Bible, What Is It?, Studies in Theology, The Bible Against Itself, etc.

Shelley (Percy Bysshe), English poet, b. Field Place (Sussex), 4 Aug. 1792. From Eton, where he refused to fag, he went to Oxford. Here he published a pamphlet on the necessity of Atheism, for which he was expelled from the University. His father, Sir Timothy Shelley, also forbade him his house. He went to London, wrote Queen Mab, and met Miss Westbrook, whom, in 1811, he married. After two children had been born, they separated. In ’16 Shelley learned that his wife had drowned herself. He now claimed the custody of his children, but, in March, ’17, Lord Eldon decided against him, largely on account of his opinions. Shelley had previously written A Letter to Lord Ellenborough, indignantly attacking the sentence the judge passed on D. I. Eaton for publishing Paine’s Age of Reason. On 30 Dec. ’16, Shelley married Mary, daughter of William Godwin and Mary Wollstonecraft. In ’18, fearing their son might also be taken from him, he left England never to return. He went to Italy, where he met Byron, composed The Cenci, the Witch of Atlas, Prometheus Unbound, Adonais, Epipsychidion, Hellas, and many minor poems of exquisite beauty, the glory of our literature. He was drowned in the Bay of Spezzia, 8 July, 1822. Shelley never wavered in his Freethought. Trelawny, who knew him well, says he was an Atheist to the last.

Siciliani (Pietro), Professor in the University of Bologna b. Galatina, 19 Sep. 1835, author of works on Positive Philosophy, Socialism, Darwinism, and Modern Sociology, ’79; and Modern Psychogeny, with a preface by J. Soury, ’82. Died 28 Dec. ’85.

Sidney (Algernon), English Republican, and second son of Robert, Earl of Leicester, b. 1617. He became a colonel in the Army of Parliament, and a member of the House of Commons. On the Restoration he remained abroad till 1677, but being implicated in the Rye House Plot, was condemned by Judge Jeffreys to be executed on Tower Hill, 7 Dec. 1678.

Sierebois (P.). See Boissière.

Siffle (Alexander François), Dutch writer, b. Middleburg, 11 May, 1801. Studied law at Leyden, and became notary at Middleburg. He wrote several poems and works of literary value, and contributed to de Dageraad. He was a man of wide reading. Died at Middleburg, 7 Oct. 1872.

Sigward (M.), b. St. Leger-sur-Dhume, France, 15 April, 1817. An active French democrat and Freethinker, and compiler of a Republican calendar. He took part in the International Congress at Paris ’89, and is one of the editors of Le Danton.

Simcox (Edith), author of Natural Law in the English and Foreign Philosophical Library; also wrote on the Design Argument in the Fortnightly Review, 1872, under the signature “H. Lawrenny.”

Simon de Tournai, a Professor at Paris University early in the XIIIth century. He said that “Three seducers,” Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad, “have mystified mankind with their doctrines.” He was said to have been punished by God for his impiety.

Simon (Richard), learned French theological critic, b. Dieppe, 15 May, 1638. Brought up by the Congregation of the Oratory, he distinguished himself by bold erudition. His Critical History of the Old Testament, 1678, was suppressed by Parliament. He followed it with a Critical History of the New Testament, which was also condemned. Died at Dieppe, 11 April, 1712.

Simonis.—A physician, b. at Lucques and persecuted in Poland for his opinions given in an Atheistic work, entitled Simonis Religio, published at Cracow, 1588.

Simpson (George), of the Glasgow Zetetic Society, who in 1838 put forward a Refutation of the Argument a priori for the being and attributes of God, in reply to Clarke and Gillespie. He used the signature “Antitheos.” Died about 1844.

Sjoberg (Walter), b. 24 May, 1865, at Borgo (Finland), lives near Helsingfors, and took part in founding the Utilistiska Samfundet there. During the imprisonment of Mr. Lennstrand he gave bold lectures at Stockholm.

Skinner (William), of Kirkcaldy, Deist, author of Thoughts on Superstition or an attempt to Discover Truth (Cupar, 1822), was credited also with Jehovah Unveiled or the God of the Jews, published by Carlile in 1819.

Slater (Thomas), English lecturer, b. 15 Sept. 1820. Has for many years been an advocate of Secularism and Co-operation. He was on the Town Council of Bury, and now resides at Leicester.

Slenker (Elmina), née Drake, American reformer, b. of Quaker parents, 23 Dec. 1827. At fourteen, she began notes for her work, Studying the Bible, afterwards published at Boston, ’70; she conducts the Children’s Corner in the Boston Investigator, and has contributed to most of the American Freethought papers. Has written John’s Way (’78), Mary Jones, The Infidel Teacher (’85), The Darwins (’79), Freethought stories. Resides at Snowville, Virginia.

Smith (Geritt), American reformer, b. Utica (N.Y.), 6 March, 1799, graduated at Hamilton’s College. He was elected to Congress in 1850, but only served one Session. Though of a wealthy slaveholding family, he largely devoted his fortune to the Anti-Slavery cause. In religion, originally a Presbyterian, he came to give up all dogmas, and wrote The Religion of Reason, ’64, and Nature the base of a Free Theology, ’67. Died, New York, 28 Dec. 1874.

Snoilsky (Karl Johan Gustav), Count, Swedish poet, b. Stockholm, 8 Sept. 1841. Studied at Upsala, ’60. Displays his Freethought in his poems published under the name of “Sventröst.”

Socinus [Ital. Sozzini] (Fausto), anti-trinitarian, b. Siena, 5 Dec. 1539. He adopted the views of his uncle, Laelio, (1525–1562), and taught them with more boldness. In 1574 he went to Switzerland, and afterwards to Poland, where he made many converts, and died 3 March, 1604.

Sohlman (Per August Ferdinand), Swedish publicist, b. Nerika, 1824. He edited the Aftonbladet, of Stockholm, from ’57, and was a distinguished Liberal politician. Died at Stockholm, 1874.

Somerby (Charles Pomeroy), American publisher, b. 1843. Has issued many important Freethought works, and is business manager of the Truthseeker.

Somerset (Edward Adolphus Saint Maur), 12th Duke of, b. 20 Dec. 1804. Educated at Eton and Oxford. He married a daughter of Thomas Sheridan. Sat as M.P. for Totnes, ’34–35, and was Lord of the Treasury, ’35–39, and First Lord of the Admiralty, ’59–66. In ’72 he startled the aristocratic world by a trenchant attack on orthodoxy entitled Christian Theology and Modern Scepticism. He also wrote on mathematics and on Monarchy and Democracy. Died 28 Nov. 1885.

Soury (Auguste Jules), French philosopher, b. Paris, 1842. In ’65 he became librarian at the Bibliothèque Nationale. He has contributed to the Revue des Deux Mondes, Revue Nouvelle, and other journals, and has published important works on The Bible and Archæology, ’72; Historical Studies on Religions, ’77; Essays of Religious Criticism, ’78; Jesus and the Gospels, ’78, a work in which he maintains that Jesus suffered from cerebral affection, and which has been translated into English, together with an essay on The Religion of Israel from his Historical Studies. Studies of Psychology, ’79, indicated a new direction in M. Soury’s Freethought. He has since written A Breviary of the History of Materialism, ’80; Naturalist Theories of the World and of Life in Antiquity, ’81; Natural Philosophy, ’82; Contemporary Psychological Doctrines, ’83. He has translated Noeldeke’s Literary History of the Old Testament, 73; Haeckel’s Proofs of Evolution, ’79; and Preyer’s Elements of General Physiology, ’84.

Southwell (Charles), English orator, b. London, 1814. He served with the British Legion in Spain, and became an actor and social missionary. In Nov. ’41 he started The Oracle of Reason at Bristol, for an article in which on “The Jew Book” he was tried for blasphemy 14 Jan. ’42, and after an able defence sentenced to twelve months’ imprisonment, and a fine of one hundred pounds. After coming out he edited the Lancashire Beacon. He also lectured and debated both in England and Scotland; wrote Christianity Proved Idolatry, ’44; Apology for Atheism, ’46; Difficulties of Christianity, ’48; Superstition Unveiled; The Impossibility of Atheism which he held on the ground that Theism was unproved, and Another Fourpenny Wilderness, in answer to G. J. Holyoake’s criticism of the same. He also wrote about ’45, Confessions of a Freethinker, an account of his own life. In ’56 he went to New Zealand, and died at Auckland 7 Aug. 1860.

Souverain (N.), French author of Platonism Unveiled 1700, a posthumous work. He had been a minister in Poitou and was deposed on account of his opinions.

Sozzini. See Socinus.

Spaink (Pierre François), Dutch physician, b. Amsterdam, 13 Dec. 1862, and studied at the city, wrote for a time on De Dageraad, with the pen names “A. Th. Eist.” and “F.R.S.” Has translated Romanes’ Scientific Evidences of Organic Evolution.

Spaventa (Bertrando), Italian philosopher, b. 1817. Since ’61 he has been professor of philosophy at Naples. Has written upon the Philosophy of Kant, Gioberti, Spinoza, Hegel, etc. Died 1888.

Specht (Karl August), Dr. German writer, b. Lhweina, 2 July, 1845. Has been for many years editor of Menschenthum at Gotha, and has written on Brain and Soul, Theology and Science and a Popular History of the World’s Development, which has gone through several editions. Dr. Specht is a leading member of the German Freethinkers’ Union.

Spencer (Herbert), English philosopher, b. Derby, 1820. He was articled to a civil engineer, but drifted into literature. He wrote in the Westminster Review, and at the house of Dr. Chapman met Mill, Lewes and “George Eliot.” His first important work was Social Statistics, ’51. Four years later appeared his Principles of Psychology, which with First Principles, ’62; Principles of Biology, ’64; Principles of Sociology, ’76–85, and Data of Ethics, ’79, form part of his “Synthetic Philosophy” in which he applies the doctrines of evolution to the phenomena of mind and society no less than to animal life. He has also published Essays, 3 vols, ’58–74; a work on Education ’61; Recent Discussions on Science, Philosophy and Morals, ’71; The Study of Sociology, ’72; Descriptive Sociology, ’72–86, an immense work compiled under his direction. Also papers directed against Socialism; The Coming Slavery, ’84; and Man and the State, ’85, and has contributed many articles to the best reviews.

Spinoza (Baruch), Pantheistic philosopher, b. of Jewish parents, Amsterdam, 24 Nov. 1632. He early engaged in the study of theology and philosophy, and, making no secret of his doubts, was excommunicated by the Synagogue, 27 July, 1656. About the same time he narrowly escaped death by a fanatic’s dagger. To avoid persecution, he retired to Rhinsburg, and devoted himself to philosophy, earning his living by polishing lenses. About 1670 he settled at the Hague, where he remained until his death. In 1670 he issued his Tractatus Theologico-politicus, which made a great outcry; and for more than a century this great thinker, whose life was gentle and self-denying, was stigmatized as an atheist, a monster, and a blasphemer. A re-action followed, with Lessing and Goethe, upon whom he had great influence. Though formerly stigmatized as an atheist, Spinoza is now generally recognised as among the greatest philosophers. He died in poverty at the Hague, 21 Feb. 1677. His Ethics was published with his Opera Posthuma. The bi-centenary of his death was celebrated there by an eloquent address from M. Rénan.

Spooner (Lysander), American writer, b. Athol (Mass.), 19 Jan. 1808. His first pamphlet was A Deist’s Reply to the alleged Supernatural Evidences of Christianity. He started letter-carrying from Boston to New York, but was overwhelmed with prosecutions. He published many works against slavery, and in favor of Individualism. Died at Boston, 14 May, 1887.

Stabili (Francesco), see Cecco’ d’Ascoli.

Stamm (August Theodor), German Humanist, wrote The Religion of Action, translated into English, 1860. After the events of ’48, he came to England, went to America, Aug. ’54.

Standring (George), English lecturer and writer, b. 18 Oct. 1855, was for some years chorister at a Ritualistic Church, but discarded theology after independent inquiry in ’73. He became hon. sec. of the National Secular Society about ’75, resigning on appointment of paid sec., was auditor and subsequently vice-president. Started Republican Chronicle, April, 1875, this was afterwards called The Republican, and in Sept. ’88 The Radical. He is sec. of the London Secular Federation, and has contributed to the National Reformer, Freethinker, Progress, Our Corner, Reynolds’s and Pall Mall Gazette. His brother, Sam., b. 27 July, 1853, is also an active Freethinker.

Stanley (F. Lloyd), American author of An Outline of the Future Religion of the World (New York and London, 1884), a Deistic work in which he criticises preceding religions.

Stanton (Elizabeth, née Cady), American reformer, b. Johnstone, New York, 12 Nov. 1815. A friend of Ernestine Rose and Lucretia Mott, she was associated with them in the Anti-Slavery and the Woman’s Rights crusades, of which last the first convention was held at her home in Seneca Falls, July ’48. She edited with her friends, Susan Anthony and Parker Pilsbury, The Revolution, and is joint author of History of Woman’s Suffrage (’80–86). She has written in the North American Review notably on “Has Christianity Benefited Woman,” May, 1885.

Stap (A.), author of Historic Studies on the origins of Christianity. Bruxelles, 1864, and The Immaculate Conception, 1869.

Starcke (Carl Nicolay), Dr. and teacher of philosophy in the University of Copenhagen, b. 29 March, 1858. A decided disciple of Feuerbach on whom he published a dissertation in ’83. This able Monograph on the whole doctrine of the German philosopher was in ’85, published in a German edition. Prof. Starcke has since published in the “International Scientific Series,” a work on The Primitive Family, in which he critically surveys the views of Lubbock, Maine, McLennan, etc. He is now engaged on a work on Ethics based on the doctrines of Ludwig Feuerbach.

Stecchetti (Lorenzo). See Guerrini (O.)

Stefanoni (Luigi). Italian writer and publicist, b. Milan, 1842. In ’59, his first Romance, The Spanish in Italy was suppressed by the Austrians. He joined Garibaldi’s volunteers and contributed to Unita Italiana. In ’66, he founded at Milan the Society of Freethinkers and the organ Il Libero Pensiero, in which he wrote A critical History of Superstition, afterwards published separately 2 vols. ’69. He also compiled a Philosophical Dictionary, ’73–75; and wrote several romances as L’Inferno, The Red and Black of Rome, etc. He translated Büchner’s Force and Matter, Morin’s Jesus réduit, La Mettrie’s Man-machine, Letourneau’s Physiology of the Passions, and Feuerbach’s Essence of Religion.

Steinbart (Gotthelf, Samuel), German rationalist, b. Züllichau, 21 Sept. 1738. Brought up in a pietist school, he became a Freethinker through reading Voltaire. In ’74, he became Prof. of Philosophy at Frankfurt-on-the-Oder, and wrote a System of Pure Philosophy, ’78. Died, 3 Feb. 1809.

Steinthal (Hajjim), German philologist, b. Gröbzig, 16 May, 1823, has written many works on language and mythology.

Steller (Johann), Advocate at Leipsic, published an heretical work, Pilatus liberatoris Jesu subsidio defensus, Dresden, 1674.

“Stendhal (M. de),” Pseud, see Beyle (M. H.)

Stephen (Sir James FitzJames), English judge and writer, b. London, 3 March, 1829. Studied at Cambridge, graduated B.A. ’52, and was called to the bar in ’54. He was counsel for the Rev. Rowland Williams when tried for heresy for writing in Essays and Reviews, and his speech was reprinted in ’62. He wrote in the Saturday Review, and reprinted Essays by a Barrister. From Dec. ’69, to April, ’72, he was Legal Member of the Indian Council, and in ’79 was appointed judge. He is author of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity, ’73, and some valuable legal works. He has written much in the Nineteenth Century, notably on the Blasphemy Law ’83, and Modern Catholicism, Oct. ’87.

Stephen (Leslie), English man of letters, brother of preceding, b. London, 28 Nov. 1832. Educated at Cambridge where he graduated M.A., ’57. He married a daughter of Thackeray, and became editor of the Cornhill Magazine from ’71–82, when he resigned to edit the Dictionary of National Biography. Mr. Stephen also contributed to Macmillan, the Fortnightly, and other reviews. Some of his boldest writing is found in Essays on Freethinking and Plainspeaking, ’73. He has also written an important History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century, ’76, dealing with the Deistic movement, and The Science of Ethics, ’82, besides many literary works.

Stern (J)., Rabbiner, German writer, b. of Jewish parents, Liederstetten (Wurtemburg), his father being Rabbi of the town. In ’58 he went to the Talmud High School, Presburg and studied the Kabbalah, which he intended to translate into German. To do this he studied Spinoza, whose philosophy converted him. In ’63 he graduated at Stuttgart. He founded a society, to which he gave discourses collected in his first book, Gottesflamme, ’72. His Old and New Faith Among the Jews, ’78, was much attacked by the orthodox Jews. In Women in the Talmud, ’79, he pleaded for mixed marriages. He has also written Jesus as a Jewish Reformer, The Egyptian Religion and Positivism, and Is the Pentateuch by Moses? In ’81 he went to live at Stuttgart, where he has translated Spinoza’s Ethics, and is engaged on a history of Spinozism.

“Sterne (Carus)”; pseud. See Krause (E).

Stevens (E. A.), of Chicago, late secretary of American Secular Union, b. 8 June, 1846. Author of God in the State, and contributor to the American Freethought journals.

Stewart (John), commonly called Walking Stewart, b. London before 1750. Was sent out in 1763 as a writer to Madras. He walked through India, Africa, and America. He was a Materialist. Died in London, 20 Feb. 1822.

“Stirner (Max).” See Schmidt (Kaspar).

Stosch (Friedrich Wilhelm), called also Stoss (Johann Friedrich), b. Berlin, 1646, and studied at Frankfort-on-the-Oder. In 1692 he published a little book, Concordia rationis et fidei, Amst. [or rather Berlin]. It was rigorously suppressed, and the possession of the work was threatened with a penalty of five hundred thalers. Lange classes him with German Spinozists, and says “Stosch curtly denies not only the immateriality, but also the immortality of the soul.” Died 1704.

Stout (Sir Robert), New Zealand statesman, b. Lerwick (Shetland Isles), 1845. He became a pupil teacher, and in ’63 left for New Zealand. In ’67 he began the study of the law, was elected to the General Assembly in ’75, and became Attorney-General in March, ’78. He has since been Minister of Education of the Colony.

Strange (Thomas Lumsden), late Madras Civil Service, and for many years a judge of the High Court, Madras. A highly religious man, and long an Evangelical Christian, he joined the Plymouth Brethren, and ended in being a strong, and then weak Theist, and always an earnest advocate of practical piety in life and conduct, and a diligent student and writer. When judge, he sentenced a Brahmin to death, and sought to bring the prisoner “to Jesus.” He professed himself influenced, but at the gallows “he proclaimed his trust to be in Rama and not in Christ.” This set the judge thinking. He investigated Christianity’s claims, and has embodied the result in his works. The Bible, Is it the Word of God? ’71; The Speaker’s Commentary Reviewed, ’71; The Development of Creation on the Earth, ’74; The Legends of the Old Testament, ’74; and The Sources and Development of Christianity, ’75. A friend of T. Scott and General Forlong, he died at Norwood, 4 Sept. 1884.

Strauss (David Friedrich), German critic, b. Ludwigsburg (Wurtemburg), 27 Jan. 1808. He studied Theology at Tübengen, was ordained in ’30, and in ’32 became assistant-teacher. His Life of Jesus Critically Treated, ’35, in which he shows the mythical character of the Gospels, aroused much controversy, and he was deprived of his position. In ’39 the Zürich Government appointed him professor of church history, but they were obliged to repeal their decision before the storm of Christian indignation. His next important work was on the Christian Doctrines (2 vols.), ’40. In ’47 he wrote on Julian the Apostle, and in ’58 an account of the Life and Time of Ulrich von Hutten. He prepared a New Life of Christ for the German People, ’64, followed by the Christ of the Creeds and the Jesus of History. In ’70 he published his lectures on Voltaire, and two years later his last work The Old Faith and the New, in which he entirely breaks not only with Christianity but with the belief in a personal God and immortality. A devoted servant of truth, his mind was always advancing. He died at his native place, 8 Feb. 1874.

Strindberg (Johan August), Swedish writer, known as the Scandinavian Rousseau, b. Stockholm, 22 Jan. 1849. He has published many prominent rationalistic works, as The Red Chamber and Marriage. The latter was confiscated. He is one of the most popular poets and novelists in Sweden.

Stromer (Hjalmar), Swedish astronomer, b. 1849. He lectured on astronomy and published several works thereon, and also wrote Confessions of a Freethinker. Died 1887.

Strozzi (Piero), Italian general in the service of France, b. of noble Florentine family 1500. Intended for the Church he abandoned it for a military career, and was created marshal of France by Henry II. about 1555. He was killed at the siege of Thionville, 20 June 1558, and being exhorted by the Duc de Guise to think of Jesus, he calmly declared himself an Atheist.

Suard (Jean Baptiste Antione), French writer, b. Besançon, 15 Jan, 1734. He became a devoted friend of Baron d’Holbach and of Garat, and corresponded with Hume and Walpole. He wrote Miscellanies of Literature, etc. He had the post of censor of theatres. Died at Paris 20 July, 1817.