Geismar (Martin von), editor of a Library of German Rationalists of the eighteenth century, in five parts, including some of the works of Bahrdt, Eberhardt, Knoblauch, etc, 1846–7. He also added pamphlets entitled Germany in the Eighteenth Century.

Gellion-Danglar (Eugène), French writer, b. Paris, 1829. Became Professor of Languages at Cairo, wrote in La Pensée Nouvelle, was made sous préfect of Compiègne, ’71, wrote History of the Revolution of 1830, and A Study of the Semites, ’82.

Gemistos (Georgios), surnamed Plethon, a philosophic reviver of Pagan learning, b. of noble parents at Byzantium about 1355. He early lost his faith in Christianity, and was attracted to the Moslem court at Brusa. He went to Italy in the train of John Palælogus in 1438, where he attracted much attention to the Platonic philosophy, by which he sought to reform the religious, political and moral life of the time. Gennadius, the patriarch of Constantinople, roundly accused him of Paganism. Died 1450.

Genard (François), French satirist, b. Paris about 1722. He wrote an irreligious work called A Parallel of the Portraits of the Age, with the Pictures of the Holy Scriptures, for which he was placed in the Bastille, where it is believed he finished his days.

Gendre (Barbe), Russian writer in French, b. Cronstadt, 15 Dec. 1842. She was well educated at Kief, where she obtained a gold medal. By reading the works of Büchner, Buckle, and Darwin she became a Freethinker. Settling in Paris, she contributed to the Revue Internationale des Sciences, to La Justice and the Nouvelle Revue, etc. Some of her pieces have been reprinted under the title Etudes Sociales (Social Studies, Paris, 1886), edited by Dr. C. Letourneau. Died Dec. 1884.

Gener (Pompeyo), Spanish philosopher, b. Barcelona, 1849, is a member of the Society of Anthropology, and author of a study of the evolution of ideas entitled Death and the Devil, Paris, ’80. This able work is dedicated to Renan and has a preface by Littré. The author has since translated it into Spanish.

Genestet (Petrus Augustus de), Dutch poet and Agnostic, b. Amsterdam, 21 Nov. 1829. He studied theology, and for some years was a Protestant minister. His verses show him to be a Freethinker. Died at Rozendaal, 2 July, 1861.

Genin (François), French philologist, b. Amiens, 16 Feb. 1803. He became one of the editors of the National, of Paris, about ’37, and wrote for it spirited articles against the Jesuits. He published works on The Jesuits and the Universities, The Church or the State, etc. In ’45 the French Academy awarded a prize to his Lexicon of the Language of Molière. He edited Diderot, ’47, and is known for his researches into the origin of the French language and literature. Died Paris, 20 Dec. 1856.

Genovesi (Antonio), Italian philosopher, b. Castiglione, 1 Nov. 1712. He read lectures in philosophy at Naples, but by his substitution of doubt for traditional belief he drew upon himself many attacks from the clergy. The book by which he is best known is his Italian Morality. Died at Naples, 20 Sept. 1769.

Gensonne (Armand), French lawyer and one of the leaders of the Girondists, b. Bordeaux, 10 Aug. 1758. He was elected to the Legislative Assembly in 1791, and to the Convention in 1792. In the struggle with the Jacobins, Gensonné was one of the most active and eloquent champions of his party. He was executed with his colleagues 31 Oct. 1793.

Gentilis (Giovanni Valentino), Italian heretic, b. Consenza, Naples, about 1520. He fled to avoid persecution to Geneva, where in 1558 he was thrown into prison at the instigation of Calvin. Fear of sharing the fate of Servetus made him recant. He wandered to Poland, where he joined Alciati and Biandrata, but he was banished for his innovations. Upon the death of Calvin he returned to Switzerland, where he was arrested for heresy, 11 June, 1566. After a long trial he was condemned for attacking the Trinity, and beheaded at Berne, 26 (?) Sept. 1566. Ladvocat says “He died very impiously, saying he thought himself honored in being martyred for the glory of the Father, whereas the apostles and other martyrs only died for the glory of the Son.”

Geoffrin (Marie Therèse, neé Rodet), a French lady distinguished as a patroness of learning and the fine arts, b. Paris, 2 June, 1699. She was a friend of Alembert, Voltaire, Marmontel, Montesquieu, Diderot, and the encyclopædists, and was noted for her benevolence. Died at Paris, 6 Oct. 1777.

Gerhard (H.), Dutch socialist, b. Delft, 11 June, 1829. Educated at an orphanage he became a tailor, travelled through France, Italy, and Switzerland, and in ’61 returned to Amsterdam. He wrote for De Dageraad, and was correspondent of the Internationale. Died 5 July, 1886.

Gerhard (A. H.), son of foregoing, b. Lausanne, Switzerland, 7 April, 1858. Is headmaster of a public school, and one of the editors of De Dageraad.

Germond (J. B. L.), editor of Marèchal’s Dictionnaire des Athées, Brussels, 1833.

Gertsen (Aleksandr Ivanovich). See Herzen.

Ghillany (Friedrich Wilhelm), German critic, b. at Erlangan, 18 April, 1807. In ’35 he became Professor of History at Nurenberg. His principal work is on Human Sacrifices among the Ancient Jews, Nurnberg, ’42. He also wrote on the Pagan and Christian writers of the first four centuries. Under the pseudonym of “Richard von der Alm” he wrote Theological Letters, 1862; Jesus of Nazareth, 1868; and a collection of the opinions of heathen and Jewish writers of the first four centuries upon Jesus and Christianity. Died 25 June, 1876.

Giannone (Pietro), Italian historian, b. Ischitella, Naples, 7 May, 1676. He devoted many years to a History of the Kingdom of Naples, in which he attacked the papal power. He was excommunicated and fled to Vienna, where he received a pension from the Emperor, which was removed on his avowal of heterodox opinions. He was driven from Austria and took refuge in Venice: here also was an Inquisition. Giannone was seized by night and cast before sunrise on the papal shore. He found means, however, of escaping to Geneva. Having been enticed into Savoy in 1736, he was arrested by order of the King of Sardinia, and confined in prison until his death, 7 March, 1748.

Gibbon (Edward), probably the greatest of historians, b. Putney, 27 April 1737. At Oxford be became a Romanist, but being sent to a Calvinist at Lausanne, was brought back to Protestantism. When visiting the ruins of the Capitol at Rome, he conceived the idea of writing the Decline and Fall of that empire. For twenty-two years before the appearance of his first volume he was a prodigy of arduous application, his investigations extending over the whole range of intellectual and political activity for nearly fifteen hundred years. His monumental work, bridging the old world and the new, is an historic exposure of the crimes and futility of Christianity. Gibbon was elected to Parliament in ’74, but did not distinguish himself. He died of dropsy, in London, 16 Jan. 1794.

Gibson (Ellen Elvira), American lecturess, b. Winchenden, Mass. 8 May, 1821, and became a public school teacher. Study of the Bible brought her to the Freethought platform. At the outbreak of the American Civil War she organised Ladies’ Soldiers’ Aid Societies, and was elected chaplain to the 1st Wisconsin Volunteer Artillery. President Lincoln endorsed the appointment, which was questioned. She has written anonymously Godly Women of the Bible, and has contributed to the Truthseeker, Boston Investigator, and Ironclad Age, under her own signature and that of “Lilian.”

Giessenburg (Rudolf Charles d’Ablaing van), one of the most notable of Dutch Freethinkers, b. of noble family, 26 April, 1826. An unbeliever in youth, in ’47 he went to Batavia, and upon his return set up as a bookseller under the name of R. C. Meijer. With Junghuhn and Günst, he started de Dageraad, and from ’56–68 was one of the contributors, usually under his name “Rudolf Charles.” He is a man of great erudition, has written Het verbond der vrije gedachte (The Alliance of Freethought); de Tydgenoot op het gebied der Rede (The Contemporary in the Field of Reason); De Regtbank des Onderzoeks (The Tribunal of Inquiry); Zedekunde en Christendom (Ethics and Christianity); Curiositeiten van allerlei aard (Curiosities of Various Kinds). He has also published the Religion and Philosophy of the Bible by W. J. Birch and Brooksbank’s work on Revelation. He was the first who published a complete edition of the famous Testament du Curé Jean Meslier in three parts (’64), has published the works of Douwes Dekker and other writers, and also Curieuse Gebruiken.

Gilbert (Claude), French advocate, b. Dijon, 7 June, 1652. He had printed at Dijon, in 1700, Histoire de Calejava, ou de l’isle des hommes raisonables, avec le paralelle de leur Morale et du Christianisme. The book has neither the name of author or printer. It was suppressed, and only one copy escaped destruction, which was bought in 1784 by the Duc de La Vallière for 120 livres. It was in form of a dialogue (329 pp.), and attacked both Judaism and Christianity. Gilbert married in 1700, and died at Dijon 18 Feb. 1720.

Gill (Charles), b. Dublin, 8 Oct. 1824, was educated at the University of that city. In ’83 he published anonymously a work on The Evolution of Christianity. It was quoted by Mr. Foote in his defences before Judge North and Lord Coleridge, and in the following year he put his name to a second edition. Mr. Gill has also written a pamphlet on the Blasphemy Laws, and has edited, with an introduction, Archbishop Laurence’s Book of Enoch, 1883.

Giles (Rev. John Allen, D.Ph.), b. Mark, Somersetshire, 26 Oct. 1808. Educated at the Charterhouse and Oxford, where he graduated B.A. as a double first-class in ’28. He was appointed head-master of the City of London School, which post he left for the Church. The author of over 150 volumes of educational works, including the Keys to the Classics; privately he was a confirmed Freethinker, intimate with Birch, Scott, etc. His works bearing on theology show his heresy, the principal being Hebrew Records 1850, Christian Records 1854. These two were published together in amended form in 1877. He also wrote Codex Apocryphus Novi Testamenti 1852, Writings of the Early Christians of the Second Century 1857, and Apostolic Records, published posthumously in 1886. Died 24 Sept 1884.

Ginguene (Pierre Louis), French historian b. Rennes, 25 April, 1748. Educated, with Parny, by Jesuits. At Paris he became a teacher, embraced the Revolution, wrote on Rousseau and Rabelais, and collaborated with Chamfort in the Historic Pictures of the French Revolution. Thrown into prison during the Terror, he escaped on the fall of Robespierre, and became Director of Public Instruction. His principal work is a Literary History of Italy. Died Paris, 11 Nov. 1816.

Gilliland (M. S.) Miss, b. Londonderry 1853, authoress of a little work on The Future of Morality, from the Agnostic standpoint, 1888.

Gioja (Melchiorre), Italian political economist, b. Piazenza, 20 Sept. 1767. He advocated republicanism, and was appointed head of a bureau of statistics. For his brochure La Scienza del Povero Diavolo he was expelled from Italy in 1809. He published works on Merit and Rewards and The Philosophy of Statistics. Died at Milan 2 Jan. 1829.

Girard (Stephen), American philanthropist, b. near Bordeaux France, 24 May, 1750. He sailed as cabin boy to the West Indies about 1760; rose to be master of a coasting vessel and earned enough to settle in business in Philadelphia in 1769. He became one of the richest merchants in America, and during the war of 1812 he took the whole of a Government loan of five million dollars. He called his vessels after the names of the philosophers Helvetius, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, etc. He contributed liberally to all public improvements and radical movements. On his death he left large bequests to Philadelphia, the principal being a munificent endowment of a college for orphans. By a provision of his will, no ecclesiastic or minister of any sect whatever is to hold any connection with the college, or even be admitted to the premises as a visitor; but the officers of the institution are required to instruct the pupils in secular morality and leave them to adopt their own religious opinions. This will has been most shamefully perverted. Died Philadelphia, 26 Dec. 1831.

Glain (D. de Saint). See Saint Glain.

Glennie (John Stuart Stuart), living English barrister and writer, author of In the Morningland, or the law of the origin and transformation of Christianity, 1873, the most important chapter of which was reprinted by Thomas Scott, under the title, Christ and Osiris. He has also written Pilgrim Memories, or travel and discussion in the birth-countries of Christianity with the late H. T. Buckle, 1875.

Glisson (Francis), English anatomist and physician, b. Rampisham, Dorsetshire, 1597. He took his degree at Cambridge, and was there appointed Regius Professor of Physic, an office he held forty years. He discovered Glisson’s capsule in the liver, and was the first to attribute irritability to muscular fibre. In his Tractatus de natura substantiæ energetica, 1672, he anticipates the natural school in considering matter endowed with native energy sufficient to account for the operations of nature. Dr. Glisson was eulogised by Harvey, and Boerhaave called him “the most accurate of all anatomists that ever lived.” Died in 1677.

Godwin (Mary). See Wollstonecraft.

Godwin (William), English historian, political writer and novelist, b. Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire, 3 March, 1756. The son of a Dissenting minister, he was designed for the same calling. He studied at Hoxton College, and came out, as he entered, a Tory and Calvinist; but making the acquaintance of Holcroft, Paine, and the English Jacobins, his views developed from the Unitarianism of Priestley to the rejection of the supernatural. In ’93 he published his republican work on Political Justice. In the following year he issued his powerful novel of Caleb Williams. He married Mary Wollstonecraft, ’96; wrote, in addition to several novels and educational works, On Population, in answer to Malthus, 1820; a History of the Commonwealth, ’24–28; Thoughts on Man, ’31; Lives of the Necromancers, ’34. Some Freethought essays, which he had intended to form into a book entitled The Genius of Christianity Unveiled, were first published in ’73. They comprise papers on such subjects as future retribution, the atonement, miracles, and character of Jesus, and the history and effects of the Christian religion. Died 7 April, 1836.

Goethe (Johann Wolfgang von), Germany’s greatest poet, b. Frankfort-on-Main, 28 Aug. 1749. He records that early in his seventh year (1 Nov. 1758) the great Lisbon earthquake filled his mind with religious doubt. Before he was nine he could write several languages. Educated at home until sixteen, he then went to Leipsic University. At Strasburg he became acquainted with Herder, who directed his attention to Shakespeare. He took the degree of doctor in 1771, and in the same year composed his drama “Goetz von Berlichingen.” He went to Wetzlar, where he wrote Sorrows of Werther, 1774, which at once made him famous. He was invited to the court of the Duke of Saxe-Weimar and loaded with honors, becoming the centre of a galaxy of distinguished men. Here he brought out the works of Schiller and his own dramas, of which Faust is the greatest. His chief prose work is Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship. His works are voluminous. He declared himself “decidedly non-Christian,” and said his objects of hate were “the cross and bugs.” He was averse to abstractions and refused to recognise a Deity distinct from the world. In philosophy he followed Spinoza, and he disliked and discountenanced the popular creed. Writing to Lavater in 1772 he said: “You look upon the gospel as it stands as the divinest truth: but even a voice from heaven would not convince me that water burns and fire quenches, that a woman conceives without a man, and that a dead man can rise again. To you, nothing is more beautiful than the Gospel; to me, a thousand written pages of ancient and modern inspired men are equally beautiful.” Goethe was opposed to asceticism, and Pfleiderer admits “stood in opposition to Christianity not merely on points of theological form, but to a certain extent on points of substance too.” Goethe devoted much attention to science, and he attempted to explain the metamorphosis of plants on evolutionary principles in 1790. Died 22 March, 1832.

Goldstuecker (Theodor), Sanskrit scholar, of Jewish birth, but a Freethinker by conviction, b. Konigsberg 18 Jan. 1821; studied at Bonn under Schlegel and Lassen, and at Paris under Burnouf. Establishing himself at Berlin, he was engaged as tutor in the University and assisted Humboldt in the matter of Hindu philosophy in the Cosmos. A democrat in politics, he left Berlin at the reaction of ’49 and came to England, where he assisted Professor Wilson in preparing his Sanskrit-English Dictionary. He contributed important articles on Indian literature to the Westminster Review, the Reader, the Athenæum and Chambers’ Encyclopædia. Died in London, 6 March, 1872.

Goldziher (Ignacz), Hungarian Orientalist, b. Stuhlweissenburg, 1850. Is since 1876 Doctor of Semitic Philology in Buda-pesth; is author of Mythology Among the Hebrews, which has been translated by Russell Martineau, ’77, and has written many studies on Semitic theology and literature.

Gordon (Thomas), Scotch Deist and political reformer, was b. Kells, Kirkcudbright, about 1684, but settled early in London, where he supported himself as a teacher and writer. He first distinguished himself by two pamphlets in the Bangorian controversy, which recommended him to Trenchard, to whom he became amanuensis, and with whom he published Cato’s Letters and a periodical entitled The Independent Whig, which he continued some years after Trenchard’s death, marrying that writer’s widow. He wrote many pamphlets, and translated from Barbeyrac The Spirit of the Ecclesiastics of All Ages. He also translated the histories of Tacitus and Sallust. He died 28 July, 1750, leaving behind him posthumous works entitled A Cordial for Low Spirits and The Pillars of Priestcraft and Orthodoxy Shaken.

Gorlæus (David), a Dutch philosopher, b. at Utrecht, towards the end of the sixteenth century, has been accused of Atheism on account of his speculations in a work published after his death entitled Exercitationes Philosophicæ, Leyden 1620.

Govea or Gouvea [Latin Goveanus] (Antonio), Portugese jurist and poet, b. 1505, studied in France and gained great reputation by his legal writings. Calvin classes him with Dolet, Rabelais, and Des Periers, as an Atheist and mocker. He wrote elegant Latin poems. Died at Turin, 5 March, 1565.

Gratiolet (Louis-Pierre), French naturalist, b. Sainte Foy, 6 July 1815, noted for his researches on the comparative anatomy of the brain. Died at Paris 15 Feb. 1865.

Graves (Kersey), American, author of The Biography of Satan, 1865, and The World’s Sixteen Crucified Saviors, 1876. Works of some vogue, but little value.

Gray (Asa), American naturalist, b. 18 Nov. 1810, Paris, Oneida Co., New York. Studied at Fairfield and became physician 1831. Wrote Elements of Botany, 1836, became Professor of Nat. Hist. at Harvard, and was the first to introduce Darwinism to America. Wrote an Examination of Darwin’s Treatise 1861. Succeeded Agassiz as Governor of Smithsonian Institute, and worked on American Flora. Died at Cambridge, Mass., 30 Jan. 1888.

Green (H. L.), American Freethinker, b. 18 Feb. 1828. Edits the Freethinker’s Magazine published at Buffalo, New York.

Greg (William Rathbone), English Writer, b. Manchester 1809. Educated at Edinburgh university, he became attracted to economic studies and literary pursuits. He was one of the founders of the Manchester Statistical Society, a warm supporter of the Anti-Corn Law League, and author of one of its prize essays. In ’40 he wrote on Efforts for the Extinction of the African Slave Trade. In ’50 he published his Creed of Christendom, which has gone through eight editions, and in 1872 his Enigmas of Life, of which there were thirteen editions in his life. He published also Essays on Political and Social Science, and was a regular contributor to the Pall Mall Gazette. His works exhibit a careful yet bold thinker and close reasoner. Died at Wimbledon 15 Nov. 1881.

Grenier (Pierre Jules), French Positivist, b. Beaumont, Perigord, 1838, author of a medical examination of the doctrine of free will, ’68, which drew out letter from Mgr. Dupanloup, Bishop of Orleans, imploring him to repudiate his impious doctrines. Also author of Aphorisms on the First Principles of Sociology, 1873.

“Grile (Dod),” pen name of Ambrose Bierce, American humorist, who wrote on the San Francisco News-Letter. His Nuggets and Dust and Fiend’s Delight, were blasphemous; has also written in Fun, and published Cobwebs from an Empty Skull, 1873.

Grimm (Friedrich Melchior von), Baron. German philosophic writer in French, b. Ratisbon, 26 Dec. 1723. Going to France he became acquainted with D’Holbach and with Rousseau, who was at first his friend, but afterwards his enemy. He became secretary to the Duke of Orleans, and wrote in conjunction with Diderot and Raynal caustic literary bulletins containing criticisms on French literature and art. In 1776 he was envoy from the Duke of Saxe Gotha to the French Court, and after the French Revolution was appointed by Catherine of Russia her minister at Hamburg. Grimm died at Gotha, 19 Dec. 1807. He is chiefly known by his literary correspondence with Diderot published in seventeen vols. 1812–1813.

Gringore (Pierre), French poet and dramatist, b. about 1475, satirised the pope and clergy as well as the early reformers. Died about 1544.

Grisebach (Eduard), German writer, b. Gottingen 9 Oct. 1845. Studied law, but entered the service of the State and became Consul at Bucharest, Petersburg, Milan and Hayti. Has written many poems, of which the best known is The New Tanhäuser, first published anonymously in ’69, and followed by Tanhäuser in Rome, ’75. Has also translated Kin Ku Ki Kuan, Chinese novels. Is a follower of Schopenhauer, whose bibliography he has compiled, 1888.

Grote (George), the historian of Greece, b. near Beckenham, Kent, 17 Nov. 1794. Descended from a Dutch family. He was educated for the employment of a banker and was put to business at the age of sixteen. He was however addicted to literary pursuits, and became a friend and disciple of James Mill and Jeremy Bentham. In 1820 he married a cultured lady, Harriet Lewin, and in ’22 his Analysis of the Influence of Natural Religion was published by Carlile, under the pen name of Philip Beauchamp. He also wrote in the Westminster Review. In ’33 he was elected as Radical M.P. for the City of London and retained his seat till ’41. He was chiefly known in Parliament for his advocacy of the ballot. In ’46–’56 he published his famous History of Greece, which cost him the best years of his life; this was followed by Plato and the other Companions of Socrates. His review of J. S. Mill’s Examination of Sir William Hamilton’s Philosophy, ’61, showed he retained his Freethought until the end of his life. He died 18 June ’71, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.

Grote (Harriet) nee Lewin, wife of the above, b. 1792, shared in his opinions and wrote his life. Died 29 Dec. 1878.

Gruen (Karl) German author, b. 30 Sept. 1817, Lüdenschied, Westphalia, studied at Bonn and Berlin. In ’44 he came to Paris, was a friend to Proudhon and translated his Philosophy of Misery, was arrested in ’49 and condemned to exile; lived at Brussels till ’62, when he was made professor at Frankfort. He became professor of English at the College of Colmar, established a Radical journal the Mannheim Evening News and he wrote Biographical Studies of Schiller, ’44, and Feuerbach, ’71. A Culture History of the 16th–17th Centuries, and The Philosophy of the Present, ’76. Died at Vienna 17 February, 1887.

Gruet (Jacques), Swiss Freethinker, tortured and put to death for blasphemy by order of Calvin at Geneva, 26 July, 1547. After his death papers were found in his possession directed against religion. They were burnt by the common hangman, April, 1550.

Gruyer (Louis Auguste Jean François-Philippe), Belgian philosopher, b. Brussels, 15 Nov. 1778. He wrote an Essay of Physical Philosophy, 1828, Tablettès Philosophiques, ’42. Principles of Physical Philosophy, ’45, etc. He held the atomic doctrine, and that matter was eternal. Died Brussels 15 Oct. 1866.

Guadet (Marguerite Elie), Girondin, b. Saint Emilion (Gironde), 20 July, 1758. He studied at Bordeaux, and became an advocate in ’81. He threw himself enthusiastically into the Revolution, and was elected Deputy for the Gironde. His vehement attacks on the Jacobins contributed to the destruction of his party, after which he took refuge, but was arrested and beheaded at Bordeaux, 15 June, 1794.

Gubernatis (Angelo de), see De Gubernatis.

Guépin (Ange), French physician, b. Pontivy, 30 Aug. 1805. He became M.D. in ’28. After the revolution of July, ’30, Dr. Guépin was made Professor at the School of Medicine at Nantes. He formed the first scientific and philosophical congress, held there in ’33. In ’48 he became Commissaire of the Republic at Nantes, and in ’50 was deprived of his situation. In ’54 he published his Philosophy of the Nineteenth Century. After the fall of the Empire, M. Guépin became Prefet of La Loire Inférieure, but had to resign from ill-health. Died at Nantes, 21 May, 1873, and was buried without any religious ceremony.

Gueroult (Adolphe), French author, b. Radepont (Eure), 29 Jan. 1810. Early in life he became a follower of Saint Simon. He wrote to the Journal des Debats, the Republique, Credit and Industrie, and founded l’Opinion National. He was elected to the Legislature in ’63, when he advocated the separation of Church and State. Died at Vichy, 21 July, 1872.

Guerra Junqueiro. Portuguese poet, b. 1850. His principal work is a poem on The Death of Don Juan, but he has also written The Death of Jehovah, an assault upon the Catholic faith from the standpoint of Pantheism. Portuguese critics speak highly of his powers.

Guerrini (Olindo), Italian poet, b. Forli, 4 Oct. 1845. Educated at Ravenna, Turin, and Bologna University; he has written many fine poems under the name of Lorenzo Stecchetti. In the preface to Nova Polemica he declares “Primo di tutto dice, non credo in Dio” (“First of all I say do not believe in God.”)

Gueudeville (Nicolas), French writer, b. Rouen, 1654. He became a Benedictine monk, and was distinguished as a preacher, but the boldness of his opinions drew on him the punishment of his superiors. He escaped to Holland, and publicly abjured Catholicism. He taught literature and philosophy at Rotterdam, wrote the Dialogue of the Baron de la Hontan with an American Savage Amst. 1704, appended to the Travels of La Hontan, 1724, edited by Gueudeville. This dialogue is a bitter criticism of Christian usages. He translated Erasmus’s Praise of Folly (1713), More’s Utopia (1715), and C. Agrippa, Of the Uncertainty and Vanity of Sciences (1726). Died at the Hague, 1720.

Guichard (Victor), French writer, b. Paris, 15 Aug. 1803. He became Mayor of Sens, and was elected deputy for the Yonne department. He was exiled in ’52, but again elected in ’71. His principal work is La Liberté de Penser, fin du Pouvoir Spirituel (1868). Died at Paris, 11th Nov. 1884.

Guild (E. E.), b. in Connecticut, 6 May, 1811. In ’35 he became a Christian minister, but after numerous debates became turned Universalist. In ’44 he published The Universalist Book of Reference, which went through several editions. It was followed by Pro and Con, in which he gives the arguments for and against Christianity.

Guirlando (Giulio) di Treviso. Italian heretic, put to death at Venice for anti-trinitarian heresy, 19 Oct. 1562.

Gundling (Nicolaus Hieronymus), German scholar and Deistic philosopher, b. near Nuremberg, 25 Feb. 1671. He wrote a History of the Philosophy of Morals, 1706, and The Way to Truth, 1713. One of the first German eclectics, he took much from Hobbes and Locke, with whom he derived all ideas from experience. Died at Halle, 16 Dec. 1729.

Gunning (William D.), American scientific professor, b. Bloomingburg, Ohio. Graduated at Oberlin and studied under Agassiz. He wrote Life History of our Planet, Chicago, 1876, and contributed to The Open Court. Died Greeley, Colorado, 8 March, 1888.

Günst (Dr. Frans Christiaan), Dutch writer and publisher, b. Amsterdam, 19 Aug. 1823. He was intended for a Catholic clergyman; studied at Berne, where he was promoted ’47. Returning to Holland he became bookseller and editor at Amsterdam. He was for many years secretary of the City Theatre. Günst contributed to many periodicals, and became a friend of Junghuhn, with whom he started De Dageraad, the organ of the Dutch Freethinkers, which he edited from ’55 to ’67. He usually contributed under pseudonyms as “Mephistho” or (∴). He was for many years President of the Independent Lodge of Freemasons, “Post Nubila Lux,” and wrote on Adon Hiram, the oldest legend of the Freemasons. He also wrote Wijwater voor Roomsch Katholieken (Holy Water for the Roman Catholics); De Bloedgetuigen der Spaansche Inquisitie (The Martyrs of the Spanish Inquisition, ’63); and Heidenen en Jezuieten, eene vergelijking van hunne zedeleer (Pagans and Jesuits, a comparison of their morals, ’67). In his life and conversation he was frater gaudens. Died 29 Dec. 1886.

Guyau (Marie Jean), French philosopher, b. 1854, was crowned at the age of 19 by the Institute of France for a monograph on Utilitarian morality. In the following year he had charge of a course of philosophy at the Condorcet lycée at Paris. Ill health, brought on by excess of work, obliged him to retire to Mentone, where he occupied himself with literature. His principal works are La Morale d’Epicure (the morality of Epicurus), in relation to present day doctrines, 1878, La Morale Anglaise Contemporaine (Contemporary English Ethics), ’79, crowned by the Academy of Moral Sciences. Verses of a philosopher, ’81. Esquisse d’une morale sans obligation ni sanction (Sketch of morality without obligation or sanction,) ’84, and L’Irreligion de l’Avenir (the Irreligion of the Future) ’87. M. Guyau was a follower of M. Fouillée, but all his works bear the impress of profound thought and originality. A chief doctrine is the expansion of life. Died Mentone, 31 March, 1888.

Guyot (Yves), French writer and statesman, b. Dinan, 1843. He wrote with Sigismond Lacroix a Study of the Social Doctrines of Christianity, ’73, and a work on morality in the Bibliothèque Matérialiste. Elected on the Municipal Council of Paris ’74–78, he has since been a deputy to the Chamber, and is now a member of the government. He has written the Principles of Social Economy, ’84, and many works on that topic; has edited Diderot’s La Religieuse and the journals Droits de l’homme and le Bien public.

Gwynne (George), Freethought writer in the Reasoner and National Reformer, under the pen-name of “Aliquis.” His reply to J. H. Newman’s Grammar of Assent shewed much acuteness. He served the cause both by pen and purse. Died 25 Sept. 1873.

Gyllenborg (Gustaf Fredrik), Count. Swedish poet, b. 6 Dec. 1731, was one of the first members of the Academy of Stockholm and Chancellor of Upsala University. He published satires, fables, odes, etc., among which may be named The Passage of the Belt. His opinions were Deistic. Died 30 March, 1808.

Haeckel (Ernst Heinrich Philipp August), German scientist, b. Potsdam, 16 Feb. 1834; studied medicine and science at Würzburg, Berlin, and Vienna. In ’59 he went to Italy and studied zoology at Naples, and two years later was made Professor of Zoology at Jena. Between ’66 and ’75 he travelled over Europe besides visiting Syria and Egypt, and later he visited India and Ceylon, writing an interesting account of his travels. He is the foremost German supporter of evolution; his Natural History of Creation, ’68, having gone through many editions, and been translated into English ’76, as have also his Evolution of Man, 2 vols. ’79, and Pedigree of Man, ’83. Besides numerous monographs and an able work on Cellular Psychology, Professor Haeckel has published important Popular Lectures on Evolution, ’78, and on Freedom in Science and Teaching, published with a prefatory note by Professor Huxley, ’79.

Hagen (Benjamin Olive), Socialist, b. 25 June, 1791. About the year 1841 his attention was attracted to the Socialists by the abuse they received. Led thus to inquire, he embraced the views of Robert Owen, and was their chief upholder for many years in the town of Derby, where he lived to be upwards of seventy years of age. His wife also deserves mention as an able lady of Freethought views.

Halley (Edmund), eminent English astronomer, known in his lifetime as “the Infidel Mathematician,” b. Haggerston, London, 29 Oct. 1656; educated at Oxford. At twenty he had made observations of the planets and of the spots on the sun. In Nov. ’76 he went to St. Helena where he prepared his Catalogue of Southern Stars, ’79. He also found how to take the sun’s parallax by means of the transits of Mercury or Venus. In ’78 he was elected a F.R.S. Two years later he made observation on “Halley’s comet,” and in ’83 published his theory of the variation of the magnet. He became a friend of Sir Isaac Newton, whom he persuaded to publish his Principia. In ’98 he commanded a scientific expedition to the South Atlantic. In 1713 he was made sec. of the Royal Society and in 1720 Astronomer-royal. He then undertook a task which required nineteen years to perform, viz: to observe the moon throughout an entire revolution of her nodes. He lived to finish this task. Died 14 Jan. 1742. Halley was the first who conceived that fixed stars had a proper motion in space. Chalmers in his Biographical Dictionary says, “It must be deeply regretted that he cannot be numbered with those illustrious characters who thought it not beneath them to be Christians.”

Hammon (W.), pseudonym of Turner William, q. v.

Hamond or Hamont (Matthew), English heretic, by trade a ploughwright, of Hethersett, Norfolk, burnt at Norwich, May 1579, for holding “that the New Testament and the Gospel of Christ were pure folly, a human invention, a mere fable.” He had previously been set in the pillory and had both his ears cut off.

Hannotin (Emile), French Deist, b. Bar le Duc in 1812, and some time editor of the Journal de la Meuse. Author of New Philosophical Theology, ’46; Great Questions, ’67; Ten Years of Philosophical Studies, ’72; and an Essay on Man, in which he seeks to explain life by sensibility.

Hanson (Sir Richard Davies), Chief Justice of South Australia, b. London, 5 Dec. 1805. He practised as attorney for a short time in London, and wrote for the Globe and Morning Chronicle. In 1830 he took part in the attempt to found a colony in South Australia. In 1851 he became Advocate-General of the colony, and subsequently in 1861 Chief Justice. In 1869 he was knighted. He wrote on Law in Nature 1865, The Jesus of History 1869, and St. Paul 1875. Hanson wrote Letters to and from Rome A.D. 61, 62 and 63. Selected and translated by C.V.S. 1873. Died at Adelaide 10 Mar. 1876.

Hardwicke (Edward Arthur), M.D., eldest son of Junius Hardwicke, F.R.C.S., of Rotherham, Yorks. In ’75 he qualified as a surveyor, and in ’86 as a physician. For twelve years he was Surgeon Superintendent of the Government Emigration Service. He is an Agnostic of the school of Herbert Spencer, and has contributed to Freethought and scientific periodicals.

Hardwicke (Herbert Junius), M.D., brother of above, b. Sheffield, 26 Jan. 1850. Studied at London, Edinburgh and Paris. In ’78 he became a member of the Edinburgh College of Physicians. Next year he was the principal agent in establishing the Sheffield Public Hospital for Skin Diseases. Besides numerous medical works, Dr. Hardwicke set up a press of his own in order to print The Popular Faith Unveiled, the publishers requiring guarantee in consequence of the prosecution of Mr. Foote (’84), and Evolution and Creation (’87). He has contributed to the Agnostic Annual, and has recently written Rambles in Spain, Italy and Morocco (’89).

Harriot (Thomas), English mathematician, b. Oxford, 1560, accompanied Raleigh to Virginia and published an account of the expedition. He was noted for his skill in algebra, and A. Wood says “He was a Deist.” Died 21 July 1621.

Harrison (Frederic), M.A., English Positivist, b. London 18 Oct. 1831, educated at London and Oxford, when he was 1st class in classics. He was called to the bar in ’58. He has since been appointed Professor of Jurisprudence and International Law. He has written many important articles in the high-class reviews, and has published The Meaning of History, Order and Progress, and on The Choice of Books and Other Literary Pieces, ’86, and has translated vol. ii of Comte’s Positive Polity. He was one of the founders of the Positivist school, ’70, and of Newton Hall in ’81. A fine stylist, his addresses and magazine articles bear the stamp of a cultured man of letters.

Hartmann (Karl Robert Eduard), German pantheistic pessimist philosopher, b. Berlin, 23 Feb. 1842. In ’58 he entered the Prussian army, but an affection of the knee made him resign in ’65. By the publication of his Philosophy of the Unconscious in ’69, he became famous, though it was not translated into English until ’84. He has since written numerous works of which we name Self-Dissolution of Christianity and The Religion of the Future, ’75, The Crisis of Christianity in Modern Theology, ’80, The Religious Consciousness of Mankind, ’81, and Modern Problems, ’86. Latterly Hartmann has turned his attention to the philosophy of politics.

Hartogh Heys van Zouteveen (Dr. Herman), a learned Dutch writer, b. Delft 13 Feb. 1841. He studied law and natural philosophy at Leyden, and graduated doctor of law in ’64 and doctor of natural philosophy in ’66. In ’66 he received a gold medal from the king of Holland for a treatise on the synthesis of organic bodies. Dr. Hartogh was some time professor of chemistry and natural history at the Hague, but lived at Delft, where he was made city councillor and in ’69 and ’70 travelled through Egypt and Nubia as correspondent of Het Vaderland and was the guest of the Khedive. He translated into Dutch Darwin’s Descent of Man and Expressions of the Emotions, both with valuable annotations of his own. He has also translated and annotated some of the works of Ludwig Büchner and “Carus Sterne,” from the German, and works from the French, besides writing several original essays on anthropology, natural history, geology, and allied sciences, contributing largely to the spread of Darwinian ideas in Holland. In ’72 he visited the United States and the Pacific coast. Since ’73 he has resided at Assen, of which he was named member of the city council, but could not take his seat because he refused the oath. He is a director of the Provincial Archæological Museum at Assen, and a member of the Dutch Literary Society the Royal Institution of Netherlands, India, and other scientific associations. For a long while he was a member of the Dutch Freethinkers’ Society, De Dageraad, of which he became president. To the organ De Dageraad he contributed important works, such as Jewish Reports Concerning Jesus of Nazareth and the Origin of Religious Ideas, the last of which has been published separately.

Haslam (Charles Junius), b. Widdington, Northumberland, 24 April, 1811. He spent most of his life near Manchester, where he became a Socialist and published Letters to the Clergy of all Denominations, showing the errors, absurdities, and irrationalities of their doctrines, ’38. This work went through several editions, and the publishers were prosecuted for blasphemy. He followed it by Letters to the Bishop of Exeter, containing materials for deciding the question whether or not the Bible is the word of God, ’41, and a pamphlet Who are the Infidels? In ’61 he removed to Benton, where he has since lived. In ’85 he issued a pamphlet entitled The Suppression of War.

Hassell (Richard), one of Carlile’s shopmen, sentenced to two years imprisonment in Newgate for selling Paine’s Age of Reason, 28 May, 1824. He died in October 1826.

Hattem (Pontiaam van), Dutch writer, b. Bergen 1641. He was a follower of Spinoza, inclined to Pantheistic mysticism, and had several followers. Died 1706.

Haureau (Jean Barthelemy), French historian, b. Paris 1812. At the age of twenty he showed his sympathy with the Revolution by a work on The Mountain. In turn journalist and librarian he has produced many important works, of which we name his Manual of the Clergy, ’44, which drew on him attacks from the clericals, and his erudite Critical Examination of the Scholastic Philosophy, ’50.

Hauy (Valentine), French philanthropist, b. Saint-Just 13 Nov. 1745. He devoted much attention to enabling the blind to read and founded the institute for the young blind in 1784. He was one of the founders of Theophilantropy. In 1807 he went to Russia, where he stayed till 1817, devoting himself to the blind and to telegraphy. Died at Paris 18 March, 1822.

Havet (Ernest August Eugène), French scholar and critic, b. Paris, 11 April, 1813. In ’40 he was appointed professor of Greek literature at the Normal School. In ’55 he was made professor of Latin eloquence at the Collége de France. In ’63 an article on Renan’s Vie de Jesus in the Revue des Deux Mondes excited much attention, and was afterwards published separately. His work on Christianity and its Origins, 4 vols. 1872–84, is a masterpiece of rational criticism.

Hawkesworth (John), English essayist and novelist, b. in London about 1715. Became contributor to the Gentleman’s Magazine and editor of the Adventurer. In ’61 he edited Swift’s works with a life of that author. He compiled an account of the voyages of Byron, Wallis, Carteret, and Cook for government, for which he received £6,000; but the work was censured as incidentally attacking the doctrine of Providence. His novel Almoran and Hamet was very popular. Died at Bromley, Kent, 17 Nov. 1773.

Hawley (Henry), a Scotch major-general, who died in 1765, and by the terms of his will prohibited Christian burial.

Hebert (Jacques René), French revolutionist, b. Alençon 15 Nov. 1757, published the notorious Père Duchêsne, and with Chaumette instituted the Feasts of Reason. He was denounced by Saint Just, and guillotined 2 March 1794. His widow, who had been a nun, was executed a few days later.

Hegel (Georg Wilhelm Friedrich), German metaphysician b. Stuttgart, 27 Aug. 1770. He studied theology at Tübingen, but, becoming acquainted with Schelling, devoted his attention to philosophy. His Encyclopædia of the Philosophical Sciences made a deep impression in Germany, and two schools sprang up, one claiming it as a philosophical statement of Christianity, the other as Pantheism hostile to revelation. Hegel said students of philosophy must begin with Spinozism. He is said to have remarked that of all his many disciples only one understood him, and he understood him falsely. He was professor at Jena, Heidelberg, and Berlin, in which last city he died 14 Nov. 1831, and was buried beside Fichte.

Heine (Heinrich), German poet and littérateur, b. of Jewish parents at Dusseldorf, 31 Dec. 1797. He studied law at Bonn, Berlin, and Göttingen; became acquainted with the philosophy of Spinoza and Hegel; graduated LL.D., and in June 1825 renounced Judaism and was baptised. The change was only formal. He satirised all forms of religious faith. His fine Pictures of Travel was received with favor and translated by himself into French. His other principal works are the Book of Songs, History of Recent Literature in Germany, The Romantic School, The Women of Shakespeare, Atta Troll and other poems. In 1835 he married a French lady, having settled in Paris, where “the Voltaire of Germany” became more French than German. About 1848 he became paralysed and lost his eyesight, but he still employed himself in literary composition with the aid of an amanuensis. After an illness of eight years, mostly passed in extreme suffering on his “mattress grave,” he died 17 Feb. 1856. Heine was the greatest and most influential German writer since Goethe. He called himself a Soldier of Freedom, and his far-flashing sword played havoc with the forces of reaction.

Heinzen (Karl Peter) German-American poet, orator and politician, b. near Dusseldorf, 22 Feb. 1809. He studied medicine at Bonn, and travelled to Batavia, an account of which he published (Cologne 1842). A staunch democrat, in 1845 he published at Darmstadt a work on the Prussian Bureaucracy, for which he was prosecuted and had to seek shelter in Switzerland. At Zurich he edited the German Tribune and the Democrat. At the beginning of ’48 he visited New York but returned to participate in the attempted German Revolution. Again “the regicide” had to fly and in August ’50 returned to New York. He wrote on many papers and established the Pioneer (now Freidenker), first in Louisville, then in Cincinnati, then in New York, and from ’59 in Boston. He wrote many works, including Letters on Atheism, which appeared in The Reasoner 1856, Poems, German Revolution, The Heroes of German Communism, The Rights of Women, Mankind the Criminal, Six Letters to a Pious Man (Boston 1869), Lessons of a Century, and What is Humanity? (1877.) Died Boston 12 Nov. 1880.

Hellwald (Friedrich von), German geographer, b. Padua 29 March 1842, and in addition to many works on various countries has written an able Culture History, 1875.

Helmholtz (Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von) German scientist, b. Potsdam 31 Aug. 1821. Distinguished for his discoveries in acoustics, optics and electricity, he is of the foremost rank among natural philosophers in Europe. Among his works we mention The Conservation of Force (1847), and Popular Scientific Lectures (1865–76.) Professor Helmholtz rejects the design hypothesis.

Helvetius (Claude Adrien) French philosopher, b. Paris 18 Jan. 1715. Descended from a line of celebrated physicians, he had a large fortune which he dispensed in works of benevolence. Attracted by reading Locke he resigned a lucrative situation as farmer-general to devote himself to philosophy. In August 1758 he published a work On the Mind (De L’Esprit) which was condemned by Pope Clement XIII, 31 Jan. 1759, and burnt by the order of Parliament 6 Feb. 1759 for the hardihood of his materialistic opinions. Mme. Du Deffand said “he told everybody’s secret.” It was republished at Amsterdam and London. He also wrote a poem On Happiness and a work on Man his Faculties and Education. He visited England and Prussia and became an honored guest of Frederick the Great. Died 26 Dec. 1771. His wife, née Anne Catherine De Lingville, b. 1719, after his death retired to Auteuil, where her house was the rendezvous of Condillac, Turgot, d’Holbach, Morellet, Cabanis, Destutt de Tracy, etc. This re-union of Freethinkers was known as the Société d’Auteuil. Madame Helvetius died 12 August 1800.

Henault, or Hesnault (Jean), French Epicurean poet of the 17th century, son of a Paris baker, was a pupil of Gassendi, and went to Holland to see Spinoza. Bayle says he professed Atheism, and had composed three different systems of the mortality of the soul. His most famous sonnet is on The Abortion. Died Paris, 1682.

Henin de Cuvillers (Etienne Felix), Baron, French general and writer, b. Balloy, 27 April, 1755. He served as diplomatist in England, Venice, and Constantinople. Employed in the army of Italy, he was wounded at Arcola, 26 Sept. ’96. He was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honor in 1811. He wrote much, particularly on magnetism. In the 8th vol. of his Archives du Magnétisme Animal, he suggests that the miracles of Jesus were not supernatural, but wrought by means of magnetism learnt in Egypt. In other writings, especially in reflections on the crimes committed in the name of religion, ’22, he shows himself the enemy of fanaticism and intolerance. Died 2 August, 1841.

Hennell (Charles Christian), English Freethinker, b. 9 March, 1809, author of an able Inquiry concerning the Origin of Christianity, first published in ’38, a work which powerfully influenced “George Eliot,” and a translation of which was introduced to German readers by Dr. D. F. Strauss. It was Hennell who induced “George Eliot” to translate Strauss’s Life of Jesus. He also wrote on Christian Theism. Hennell lived most of his time in Coventry. He was married at London in ’39, and died 2 Sept. 1850.

Herault de Sechelles (Marie Jean), French revolutionist, b. of noble family, Paris, 1760. Brought up as a friend of Buffon and Mirabeau, he gained distinction as a lawyer and orator before the Revolution. Elected to the Legislative Assembly in ’91, he was made President of the Convention, 2 Nov. 92. He edited the document known as the Constitution of 1793, and was president and chief speaker at the national festival, 10 Aug. ’93. He drew on himself the enmity of Robespierre, and was executed with Danton and Camille Desmoulins, 5 April, 1794.

Herbart (Johann Friedrich), b. Oldenburg 4 May 1776. In 1805 he was made professor of philosophy at Göttingen, and in 1808 became Kant’s successor at Königsberg and opposed his philosophy. Though religiously disposed, his philosophy has no room for the notion of a God. He was recalled to Göttingen, where he died 14 Aug. 1841.

Herbert (Edward), Lord of Cherbury, in Shropshire, b. Montgomery Castle, 1581. Educated at Oxford, after which he went on his travels. On his return he was made one of the king’s counsellors, and soon after sent as ambassador to France to intercede for the Protestants. He served in the Netherlands, and distinguished himself by romantic bravery. In 1625 he was made a peer of Ireland, and in ’31 an English peer. During the civil wars he espoused the side of Parliament. His principal work is entitled De Veritate, the object of which was to assert the sufficiency of natural religion apart from revelation. He also wrote Lay Religion, his own Memoirs, a History of Henry VIII., etc. Died 20 Aug. 1648.

Hertell (Thomas), judge of the Marine Court of New York, and for some years Member of the Legislature of his State. He wrote two or three small works criticising Christian Theology, and exerted his influence in favour of State secularization.

Hertzen or Gertsen (Aleksandr Ivanovich), Russian patriot, chief of the revolutionary party, b. Moscow, 25 March, 1812. He studied at Moscow University, where he obtained a high degree. In ’34 he was arrested for Saint Simonian opinions and soon afterwards banished to Viatka, whence he was permitted to return in ’37. He was expelled from Russia in ’42, visited Italy, joined the “Reds” at Paris in ’48, took refuge at Geneva, and soon after came to England. In ’57 he set up in London a Russian printing press for the publication of works prohibited in Russia, and his publications passed into that country in large numbers. Among his writings are Dilettantism in Science, ’42; Letters on the Study of Nature, ’45–46; Who’s to Blame? ’57; Memoirs of the Empress Catherine, and My Exile, ’55. In ’57 Herzen started the magazine the Kolokol or Bell. Died at Paris, 21 Jan. 1870. His son, Alessandro Herzen, b. Wladimar, 1839, followed his father’s fortunes, learnt most of the European languages and settled at Florence, where he did much to popularise physiological science. He has translated Maudsley’s Physiology of Mind, and published a physiological analysis of human free will.

Herwegh (Georg), German Radical and poet, b. Stuttgart, 31 May, 1817. Intended for the Church, he left that business for Literature. His Gedichte eines Lebendigen (Poems of a Living Man) aroused attention by their boldness. In ’48 he raised a troop and invaded Baden, but failed, and took refuge in Switzerland and Paris. Died at Baden-Baden, 7 April, 1875.

Hetherington (Henry), English upholder of a free press, b. Soho, London, 1792. He became a printer, and was one of the most energetic of working men engaged in the foundation of mechanics’ institutes. He also founded the Metropolitan Political Union in March, 1830, which was the germ both of trades’ unionism and of the Chartist movement. He resisted the “taxes upon knowledge” by issuing unstamped The Poor Man’s Guardian, a weekly newspaper for the people, established, contrary to “law,” to try the power of “might” against “right,” ’31–35. For this he twice suffered sentences of six months’ imprisonment. He afterwards published The Unstamped, and his persistency had much to do in removing the taxes. While in prison he wrote his Cheap Salvation in consequence of conversation with the chaplain of Clerkenwell Gaol. On Dec. 8, ’40, he was tried for “blasphemous libel” for publishing Haslam’s Letters to the Clergy, and received four month’s imprisonment. Hetherington published A Few Hundred Bible Contradictions, and other Freethought works. Much of his life was devoted to the propaganda of Chartism. He died 24 Aug. 1849, leaving a will declaring himself an Atheist.

Hetzer (Ludwig), anti-Trinitarian martyr, b. Bischopzell, Switzerland; was an Anabaptist minister at Zurich. He openly denied the doctrine of the Trinity, and was condemned to death by the magistrates of Constance on a charge of blasphemy. The sentence was carried out 4 Feb. 1529.

Heusden (C. J. van), Dutch writer in De Dageraad. Has written several works, Thoughts on a Coming More Universal Doctrine, by a Believer, etc.

Hibbert (Julian), Freethought philanthropist, b. 1801. During the imprisonment of Richard Carlile he was active in sustaining his publications. Learning that a distinguished political prisoner had received a gift of £1,000, he remarked that a Freethinking prisoner should not want equal friends, and gave Carlile a cheque for the same amount. Julian Hibbert spent nearly £1,000 in fitting up Carlile’s shop in Fleet Street. He contributed “Theological Dialogues” to the Republican, and also contributed to the Poor Man’s Guardian. Hibbert set up a private press and printed in uncial Greek the Orphic Hymns, ’27, and also Plutarch and Theophrastus on Superstition, to which he wrote a life of Plutarch and appended valuable essays “on the supposed necessity of deceiving the vulgar”; “various definitions of an important word” [God], and a catalogue of the principal modern works against Atheism. He also commenced a Dictionary of Anti-Superstitionists, and Chronological Tables of British Freethinkers. He wrote a short life of Holbach, published by James Watson, to whom, and to Henry Hetherington, he left £500 each. Died December 1834.

Hedin (Sven Adolph), Swedish member of the “Andra Kammaren” [House of Commons], b. 1834. Studied at Upsala and became philosophical candidate, ’61. Edited the Aftonbladet, ’74–76. Has written many radical works.

Higgins (Godfrey), English archæologist, b. Skellow Grange, near Doncaster, 1771. Educated at Cambridge and studied for the bar, but never practised. Being the only son he inherited his father’s property, married, and acted as magistrate, in which capacity he reformed the treatment of lunatics in York Asylum. His first work was entitled Horæ Sabbaticæ, 1813, a manual on the Sunday Question. In ’29 he published An Apology for the Life and Character of Mohammed and Celtic Druids, which occasioned some stir on account of the exposure of priestcraft. He died 9 Aug. 1833, leaving behind a work on the origin of religions, to the study of which he devoted ten hours daily for about twenty years. The work was published in two volumes in 1826, under the title of “Anacalypsis, an attempt to draw aside the veil of the Saitic Isis; or an Inquiry into the Origin of Languages, Nations, and Religions.”

Hillebrand (Karl), cosmopolitan writer, b. 17 Sept. 1829, at Giessen. His father, Joseph Hillebrand, succeeded Hegel as professor at Heidelberg. Involved in the revolutionary movement in Germany, Karl was imprisoned in the fortress of Rastadt, whence he escaped to France. He taught at Strasbourg and Paris, where he became secretary to Heine. On the poet’s death he removed to Bordeaux, where he became a naturalised Frenchman. He became professor of letters at Douay. During the Franco-Prussian war he was correspondent to the Times, and was taken for a Prussian spy. In 1871 he settled at Florence, where he translated the poems of Carducci. Hillebrand was a contributor to the Fortnightly Review, Nineteenth Century, Revue des deux Mondes, North American Review, etc. His best known work is on France and the French in the second half of the nineteenth century. Died at Florence, 18 Oct. 1884.

Hins (Eugène), Belgian writer, Dr. of Philosophy, Professor at Royal Athenæum, Charleroi, b. St. Trond, 1842. As general secretary of the International, he edited L’Internationale, in which he laid stress on anti-religious teaching. He contributed to La Liberté, and was one of the prominent lecturers of the Societies Les Solidaires, and La Libre-pensée of Brussels. He has written La Russie dé voilée au moyen de sa littérature populaire, 1883, and other works.

Hippel (Theodor Gottlieb von), German humoristic poet, b. Gerdauen, Prussia, 31 Jan. 1741. He studied theology, but resigned it for law, and became in 1780 burgomaster of Königsberg. His writings, which were published anonymously, betray his advanced opinions. Died Bromberg, 23 April, 1796.

Hittell (John S.), American Freethinker, author of the Evidences against Christianity (New York, 1857): has also written A Plea for Pantheism, A New System of Phrenology, The Resources of California, a History of San Francisco, A Brief History of Culture (New York, 1875), and St. Peter’s Catechism (Geneva, 1883).

Hoadley (George), American jurist, b. New Haven, Conn., 31 July, 1836. He studied at Harvard, and in ’47 was admitted to the bar, and in ’51 was elected judge of the superior court of Cincinnati. He afterwards resigned his place and established a law firm. He was one of the counsel that successfully opposed compulsory Bible reading in the public schools.

Hobbes (Thomas), English philosopher, b. Malmesbury, 5 April, 1588. In 1608 he became tutor to a son of the Earl of Devonshire, with whom he made the tour of Europe. At Pisa in 1628 he made the acquaintance of Galileo. In 1642 he printed his work De Cive. In 1650 appeared in English his work on Human Nature, and in the following year his famous Leviathan. At the Restoration he received a pension, but in 1666 Parliament, in a Bill against Atheism and profaneness, passed a censure on his writings, which much alarmed him. The latter years of his life were spent at the seat of the Duke of Devonshire, Chatsworth, where he died 4 Dec. 1679.

Hodgson (William, M.D.), English Jacobin, translator of d’Holbach’s System of Nature (1795). In 1794 he was confined in Newgate for two years for drinking to the success of the French Republic. In prison he wrote The Commonwealth of Reason.

Hoelderlin (Johann Christian Friedrich), German pantheistic poet, b. Laufen, 20 March, 1770. Entered as a theological student at Tübingen, but never took to the business. He wrote Hyperion, a fine romance (1797–99), and Lyric Poems, admired for their depth of thought. Died Tübingen, 7 June, 1843.

Hoijer (Benjamin Carl Henrik), Swedish philosopher, b. Great Skedvi, Delecarlia, 1 June, 1767. Was student at Upsala University ’83, and teacher of philosophy ’98. His promotion was hindered by his liberal opinions. By his personal influence and published treatises he contributed much to Swedish emancipation. In 1808 he became Professor of Philosophy at Upsala. Died 8 June, 1812.

Holbach (Paul Heinrich Dietrich von) Baron, b. Heidelsheim Jan. 1723. Brought up at Paris where he spent most of his life. Rich and generous he was the patron of the Encyclopædists. Buffon, Diderot, d’Alembert, Helvetius, Rousseau, Grimm, Raynal, Marmontel, Condillac, and other authors often met at his table. Hume, Garrick, Franklin, and Priestley were also among his visitors. He translated from the German several works on chemistry and mineralogy, and from the English, Mark Akenside’s Pleasures of the Imagination. He contributed many articles to the Encyclopédie. In 1765 he visited England, and from this time was untiring in his issue of Freethought works, usually put out under pseudonyms. Thus he wrote and had published at Amsterdam Christianity Unveiled, attributed to Boulanger. The Spirit of the Clergy, translated, from the English of Trenchard and Gordon, was partly rewritten by d’Holbach, 1767. His Sacred Contagion or Natural History of Superstition, was also wrongly attributed to Trenchard and Gordon. This work was condemned to be burnt by a decree of the French parliament, 8 Aug. 1770. D’Holbach also wrote and published The History of David, 1768, The Critical History of Jesus Christ, Letters to Eugenia, attributed to Freret, Portable Theology, attributed to Bernier, an Essay on Prejudices, attributed to M. Du M [arsais], Religious Cruelty, Hell Destroyed, and other works, said to be from the English. He also translated the Philosophical Letters of Toland, and Collins’s Discourses on Prophecy, and attributed to the latter a work with the title The Spirit of Judaism. These works were mostly conveyed to the printer, M. Rey, at Amsterdam, by Naigeon, and the secret of their authorship was carefully preserved. Hence d’Holbach escaped persecution. In 1770 he published his principal work The System of Nature, or The Laws of the Physical and Moral World. This text-book of atheistic philosophy, in which d’Holbach was assisted by Diderot, professed to be the posthumous work of Mirabaud. It made a great sensation. Within two years he published a sort of summary under the title of Good Sense, attributed to the curé Meslier. In 1773 he wrote on Natural Politics and the Social System. His last important work was Universal Morality; or the Duties of Man founded upon Nature. D’Holbach, whose personal good qualities were testified to by many, was depicted in Rousseau’s Nouvelle Héloise as the benevolent Atheist Wolmar. Died 21 Jan. 1789.

Holcroft (Thomas), English author, b. 10 Dec. 1745, was successively a groom, shoemaker, schoolmaster, actor and author. His comedies “Duplicity,” 1781, and “The Road to Ruin,” 1792, were very successful. He translated the Posthumous Works of Frederick the Great, 1789. For his active sympathy with the French Republicans he was indicted for high treason with Hardy and Horne Tooke in 1794, but was discharged without a trial. Died 23 March, 1809.

Holland (Frederic May), American author, b. Boston, 2 May, 1836, graduated at Harvard in ’49, and in ’63 was ordained Unitarian minister at Rockford, Ill. Becoming broader in his views, he resigned, and has since written in the Truthseeker, the Freethinkers’ Magazine, etc. His principal work is entitled The Rise of Intellectual Liberty, 1885.