Insert the needle at a point the desired depth of the blanket stitch and take one or two running stitches to the edge of the cloth, which will bring the thread in position for the first stitch. Make the first blanket stitch over these running stitches. Holding the edge of the cloth toward you insert the needle at the same point as before and bring the needle out over the thread and draw the loop thus made to the edge of the cloth. Repeat for successive stitches. For a simple finish for a flannel edge the stitches should not be placed too close together. As far apart as the depth of the stitch is a good rule, unless greater ornamentation is desired, when three, five or seven stitches may radiate from one point.

The stitches are the same as in "A" but should be placed close enough together so that the threads touch, making a firm edge. The embroidery should be done before the edge is cut. It can then be finished in various ways. The narrow edge can be turned back and whipped down on the wrong side, or blanket stitched just over the edge with fine cotton thread. On lingerie pieces the edge is not cut until after the first laundering. If desired the edge can be padded before working with the blanket stitch. The padding is done with a soft, coarse thread by working along the edge with either the Kensington or chain stitch, or it may be heavily "padded" by filling the space.

Chain Stitch.—The chain stitch is used for outlining a design, marking garments, etc. Insert the needle on the line and draw the thread through to the knot. Insert again at the same point and take up on the needle cloth for the desired length of stitch and draw the needle out over the thread. In placing the needle for succeeding stitches begin inside the preceding stitch. The Half-Chain Stitch is very effective for stems of flowers, or wherever a fine outline stitch can be used. This is made the same as the chain stitch, except that the needle is inserted just outside and to the right of the loop instead of in the end of the loop.

Couching.—Couching is a coarse blanket stitch done over two or three strands of silk, linen or cotton floss. It makes an attractive finish for a hem line and also for finishing the edge in applique.

Work toward you, holding the cloth over the left forefinger. With a knot in the thread insert the needle from the under side a short distance to the right or left of the line the feather stitching is to follow (which may be designated the center line) and draw the thread through. Place the left thumb over the thread to hold it down, and on the opposite side take up a slanting stitch, the top of which is as far from the center line as the length of the stitch, and the bottom touching the center line. Draw the needle out over the thread which will thus form a loop of the thread from the first stitch. On the opposite side take up another slanting stitch the top of which is an equal distance from the center line and even with the bottom of the last stitch. Repeat for successive stitches. At the end of a thread fasten by passing the needle down where the thread last came through the cloth, thus holding the loop from the last stitch in place. Begin a new thread by passing the needle up through this loop.

This consists of alternating groups of two, three or more stitches instead of single stitches. The successive stitches of each group must be placed directly under the first stitch of the group.

French Knot.—Bring the needle through from the under side. With the needle in the right hand, take hold of the thread with the left hand about an inch from the cloth and, holding it taut, wind it several times around the point of the needle. Return the needle to the same hole through which it came out, and draw it back to the under side.

Hemstitching.—Hemstitching is a method of hemming in which a few parallel threads are drawn, the hem turned to the line thus formed, and hemmed down with the same stitch that separates the cross threads in successive clusters. There are several modifications of the hemstitch. The following methods have been selected as being the best for four reasons: (1) The thread is thrown under the edge of the hem, and consequently wears longer and shows less. (2) The only part of the thread showing on the right side is the loop around the cross threads. (3) It is readily taught to children, as it is simple, easy to remember, and can be given as two distinct parts. (4) It is the natural way to hold the hem.

Herringbone Stitch.—The herringbone or catch stitch is a cross stitch used to finish the raw edges of flannel or heavy material. It serves both the purpose of overcasting over a raw edge and that of hemming. It is used on raw edged hems to avoid the ridge formed by the first fold of a hem, on the flannel patch and for finishing the flannel seam, which may be pressed open and both single edges herringbone stitched, or both folded to one side and finished over the double edge. In most cases the open seam looks better.

The stitch consists of single, alternating running stitches made first to the right and then to the left, working from you instead of toward you as in ordinary running. The thread being carried across from one stitch to another, gives the appearance of a cross stitch. The stitches on each side must be in straight rows, with the outer row just over the edge of the flannel. The stitch should be no deeper than necessary to prevent pulling out. A good rule for beginners is to make the top of each stitch even with the bottom of the last stitch. Point the needle toward you in making the stitch, but work away from you. The edge of the flannel must be kept smooth. This being a cross stitch the thread of one part of the stitch is on top and the other underneath. Be sure that this is regular, those slanting in the same direction should be always either to the top or to the bottom.

Kensington Outline Stitch.—This stitch is used to follow the line of a design for ornamentation. To avoid the knot, when starting begin half an inch from the end of the line to be followed, and put in three or four running stitches, bringing the thread out at the proper place for starting. Turn the cloth around, holding it over the left forefinger, and work from you. Pointing the needle toward you, take a short running stitch directly on the line keeping the thread always on the right side of the needle, except on a line curving sharply to the left when the thread will fall more naturally to the left side. The thread being carried from one stitch to another gives the effect of a long diagonal stitch on the right side and running stitches on the wrong. The length of the stitch will be determined by the size of the thread, and the character of the line to be covered, a curved line requiring a shorter stitch than a straight one.

Lazy Daisy or Star Stitch.—This is a variation of the blanket stitch. Insert the needle at the point desired for the center of the flower and draw the thread through. Insert again at the same place and take up the desired length of stitch on the needle, drawing the needle out over the thread. Pass the needle down through the cloth at the point where it came out, but on the other side of the loop, thus forming a second loop at the end of the petal to hold it in place, and return the needle again to the center of the flower. Make as many petals as desired and finish with the French knot in the center of the flower. This stitch also makes a pretty star, using six points and finishing without the French knot.

Miscellaneous.

Bands.—A band is a straight piece of cloth used to finish garments at the neck, wrist or waist. It may be sewed to a straight, gathered or pleated edge. A band cut with the warp is stronger than one cut with the woof.

See description of the Gathering, page 68. Gather as desired. Place the right sides of the cloth and band together and baste just above the gathering thread, taking care that the gathers are arranged perfectly even. Stitch just below the gathering thread. Turn in a fourth of an inch at the ends and along the other side of the band. Fold the band over just covering the gathers, and baste. Hem or stitch along the edge, overhanding the ends of the band.

See description of Gauging, page 69. Make the band by turning in one-fourth of an inch all around, folding and basting the edges together. Overhand the ends of the band. The whipping of the full part to the band will be sufficient to hold the two sides of the band together. Turn back the raw edges of the piece to be gathered one-half inch and gather once, twice or three times as desired. Pin to the band and overhand, taking a stitch for each pleat of the gathers. Fasten all bands very securely.

Bias.—A bias is a diagonal cut. To cut a true bias, fold over the corner of the cloth so that the warp and woof threads are parallel. A choice bias is a true bias, having the twill of the cloth at right angles to the cut. Great care should be taken in measuring and cutting bias strips to have them the same width throughout the length. Also avoid stretching after cutting.

Cloth.—A fabric woven of fibers, either animal or vegetable. The edges of cloth are known as the selvedge, the threads running lengthwise the warp, and those crossing the warp from selvedge to selvedge the woof. The selvedge should be trimmed off, as it is hard to sew through and draws up when wet.

Eyelets and Loops.—An eyelet is a small hole made and worked in a garment to receive a cord, stud or loop of a button. Punch the hole with a stiletto, pushing the threads apart rather than breaking them. Overhand closely from right to left with short even stitches. A large eyelet may be cut out and worked around with the buttonhole stitch. A blind loop is made in place of the eye to receive a hook. Put three or four long stitches in the same place beginning at the left, so that the thread will be at the proper place for working the loop with the blanket stitch.

Joining and Fastening Thread.—When sewing, care should be taken in joining threads. The manner in which it is done depends upon the stitch in use. In hemming, leave a half-inch of the old and a half-inch of the new thread, tuck both under the hem and continue hemming over the threads. The same plan is followed in overhanding. In the blanket stitch, feather stitch, herringbone, chain and buttonhole stitch the new thread must come out through the last stitch. Thoughtful attention should be given to the fastening of threads, as careful, painstaking work may soon be rendered useless by the loosening of the thread from the end. After fastening securely clip off all threads that the work may be not only strong, but neat. The usual fastening consists of several backstitches taken in the same place.

Mitered Corner.—Two hems crossing at right angles may be finished either with the square or the mitered corner. To miter a corner, turn and crease a quarter-inch fold on both sides. Turn the second fold of the hem the desired width on both sides and crease. Open out the corner and place a dot where the inner creases cross. Place a second dot a quarter of an inch from the first toward the corner. Through this second point draw a line passing from side to side, across the corner, being careful that the line is an equal distance from the corner on both sides. Cut off the corner on this line. Fold both hems again on the creases before made and pin the hem on one side in place. Make a pin hole as near the exact point where the hems cross as possible, passing through both hems. Fold in the bias edge on the hem that is not pinned down, exactly from the pin hole to the corner, causing the edges of the two hems to meet at an angle of forty-five degrees.

Patterns.—With the varied, complex and ever-changing styles of fashion, individual pattern drafting (except for a very simple article) is impracticable, usually resulting in commonplace garments and involving useless time and labor. For the trifling sum of ten or fifteen cents reliable, up-to-date patterns can be secured which are cut to established measurements by a fashion expert. A good needlewoman supplies herself with a good pattern and then cuts accurately, bastes carefully, and finishes neatly, and in nearly all cases, results will be satisfactory.

Plackets.—A placket is an opening made in a garment. There are several ways of finishing an opening, but in all cases, except when the gusset is used, the underside should extend some distance under the top to prevent gaping.

This is the placket used on children's drawers, night shirts, under garments, etc.

Cut the opening the desired length. Cut the facing with the warp a little more than twice the length of the opening and twice the desired width when finished, plus one-fourth inch, or more, allowed for seams. The following are the successive steps for making the placket:

This is the placket used on dress skirts, petticoats and carefully tailored garments.

Follow the directions for the successive steps for making Placket A through "g," as the two plackets are the same to this point.

The left side of the facing will consist of an extension hem the same as in Placket A, the only difference in the plackets being the manner of finishing the right side or top facing.

As this consists of an extra piece which extends over the opening, it is necessary to allow for this in cutting, so that the middle of this piece will come in the center when finished. When cutting this opening in a nightgown, cut to the right of the center one-half the width the facing is to be when finished. The following are the successive steps for making the nightgown opening:

This method of finishing an opening is sometimes used on drawers and night-shirts instead of Placket A. The following are the successive steps for making the gusset:

Putting in Sleeves.—After trimming the arm hole, measure one inch back from the shoulder seam and mark with a pin. Fold the garment at the arm hole with this pin at the top of the fold and place another directly opposite it. Call this point A. Remove the first pin to avoid confusion. For a sleeve for an adult, measure from the shoulder seam five inches on the front and mark with a pin. Call this point B. Measure from the shoulder seam three inches on the back and mark with a pin. Call this point C. With the sleeve right side out place the under seam of the sleeve at A and pin together at this point. The gathers are to come at the top of the sleeve between B and C. For misses and children the measurements should be decreased proportionately. Measure the sleeve on the arm-hole and cut small notches at B and C. Gather the sleeve between these notches one-fourth of an inch from the edge, with a strong thread a little longer than the distance to be gathered. Put in a second gathering one-eighth of an inch from the first. Put in place at points A B and C; draw up the gathering threads to the proper length and fasten by winding around a pin. Arrange the gathers between B and C, pushing them a little closer together in front of the shoulder seam. Hold the inside of the sleeve next to you and, beginning at B, baste first around the plain part, then the gathered part. Stitch inside the basting and bind the seam.

Seams.—A seam is formed by sewing together two pieces of cloth. There are several different methods of joining them. Those known as the raw seams may be joined by stitching, half-back stitching, overhanding or the combination stitch. The closed or finished seams are known as the French Fell, French Seam, Hemmed Seam, Flannel Seam and the Bound Seam. No garment should be finished with a raw seam, which is only properly used when covered with a lining, or as the first step in one of the finished seams.

Place the two pieces to be joined, right sides together, edges even and baste one-fourth of an inch from the edge. Sew with the combination stitch (or machine stitching) three-eighths of an inch from the edge. Trim three-sixteenths of an inch from the under side of the seam and crease the upper side of the seam over this. (In hand sewing there is a long stitch on the under side. Be sure to trim from this side so that the short stitch comes on the top.) On the right side of the garment crease carefully and baste along the edge of the seam to prevent the fullness which beginners are so liable to have over the French Fell on the right side. Turn to the wrong side, baste the seam flat to the cloth, and hem.

Place together the wrong sides of the pieces to be joined, and baste one-fourth of an inch from the edge. With the running stitch sew one-eighth of an inch from the edge. Carefully trim off the ravelings, fold the right sides together and crease exactly in the seam, baste and stitch the seam, taking care that no ravelings can be seen and that the seam is perfectly smooth on the right side.

This is used for joining thin material, lace, etc. On one piece fold an eighth of an inch seam (or more, if necessary) to the right side of the cloth, and on the other piece fold an eighth of an inch seam to the wrong side. Place the right sides of the two pieces together with the raw edge of one piece under and to the folded edge of the other. Baste this fold down over the raw edge sewing through the three thicknesses of cloth. Fold over in the crease and baste through the four thicknesses. Stitch, or hem by hand, along the edge of the seam on both sides of the cloth.

The flannel seam is used on material so thick that it is necessary to finish over a raw edge, instead of with a seam involving several thicknesses of cloth. Place together the right sides of the two pieces to be joined and baste one-eighth of an inch from the edge. Stitch one-fourth of an inch from the edge and remove the bastings. Trim the seams smooth, open and baste flat to the cloth. Herringbone stitch over the raw edge of both sides of the seam. One side of the herringbone stitch should come just over the raw edge of the flannel. The edges must be kept smooth, and unless the flannel ravels easily, the herringbone stitch should be not over one-eighth of an inch deep and close together. This stitch is used also on the flannel patch.

Seams may be bound with the two parts of the seam together, or they may be pressed open and bound separately. This may be done with a bias strip, binding ribbon or tape.

Sewing on Buttons.—There are two important requirements for sewing on buttons—to put in sufficient thread, and to fasten this thread securely that it may not loosen from the end. In sewing flat buttons on coats, jackets, etc., place a small button on the under side and sew through it to avoid having the stitches show on the under side.

Sewing on Hooks and Eyes.—In sewing hooks and eyes on a garment it is best, where practicable, to cover the ends with the lining of the garment or with a piece of tape. In sewing them on the edge of a hem or facing turn the edge of the hem back over the ends of the hooks and eyes and hem it down. Where they are to be covered they should be strongly overhanded to the garment first. When covering is not feasible place the hook or eye in position and buttonhole around the top, beginning at the right-hand side and inserting the needle under and up through the hole, throwing the thread around the needle as in the buttonhole stitch. The hook should be sewed down at the point before breaking the thread. The worked loop is often used in place of the metal eye. For this purpose cut a stiff pointed piece of cardboard the length of the desired loop and work the loop over this, when the cardboard can be easily slipped out. The loop is worked from left to right with the blanket stitch the same as the bar of the buttonhole.

Sewing on Lace.—When sewing lace to an edge always hold the lace next to you. Lace may be put on straight or gathered. At the top of most laces will be found a coarse thread woven into the lace for the purpose of gathering. Before drawing this up divide the lace and the edge upon which it is to be placed into halves, quarters or eighths, depending upon the length, and pin, with right sides together, at points of division. Then draw up the thread, arrange the gathers even, and overhand to the edge with fine even stitches. If the gathering thread is not in the lace, put it in and proceed as above. If the lace is to be put on plain hold it loosely to the edge and overhand.

When sewing the lace on plain to round a corner, overhand to a point as far from the corner as the width of the lace. (This point may be designated A, and a point an equal distance from the corner on the other side B.) From A measure on the lace twice its width and pin at the corner. Allow the same fullness on the other side and pin at B. Continue overhanding from B, leaving the corner until later, when the gathering thread will be put in, gathers arranged and the lace overhanded to the edge. If the lace is wide baste it in place at the corners before overhanding.

When sewing gathered lace to an edge, to round a corner proceed as above with this exception: The same fullness must be allowed on the corner that is allowed on the straight edge, in addition to that required to carry the lace around the corner without drawing. For example: If one-half the length of the lace is allowed for fullness on the straight edge, at the corner allow two and one-half times the width of the lace instead of twice its width.

The manner of sewing two ends of lace together will depend upon the kind of lace to be joined, the pattern, strength, etc. The first aim to be considered is to have the joining strong enough so that it will not pull apart. The second is to join it so that it will show as little as possible. Several methods are suggested:

Tucking.—Crease the first tuck where desired. For the second tuck measure from the first and allow twice the width of the tuck plus the desired space between. Repeat for the successive tucks.

This makes an excellent finish for the bottom of underskirts, petticoats and drawers. Measure up from the bottom twice the width of the desired hem plus one-fourth of an inch for the seam and crease for a tuck. Stitch the tuck. This will leave the raw edge extending one-fourth of an inch below the edge of the tuck. Place the ruffle along this edge, wrong sides together, and baste in a quarter-inch seam. Baste the tuck over the seam and stitch along the edge.

CHAPTER VIII.

The fibers used in the manufacture of cloth are of two different natures, vegetable and animal.

The vegetable fibers may be divided into three distinct classes:

The animal fibers are obtained from the wool bearing animals such as common sheep, Angora and Cashmere goats and the hair of the camel.

The silk fiber is obtained from the cocoon of a caterpillar.

SILK.

Silk is the most beautiful of all fabrics. It is made from the fiber produced by the silk-worm which is a species of caterpillar. So perfectly does this little worm do its work that no spinning is required. This fiber, placed under a microscope, looks like a glass thread. It is the light playing along this smooth surface that gives to silk its beautiful luster.

Silk first came to Europe from China where the industry had been cultivated for many centuries. It is said this was begun by a woman, the wife of an Emperor, in the year 2600 B. C., and the culture of the mulberry, upon the leaves of which the silk-worm feeds and thrives, forty years later.

Several unsuccessful attempts have been made to introduce the cultivation of the silk industry into the United States. As the business requires a large amount of cheap labor for a short time during the year, it has not as yet been found profitable. Machines are of little use, except in reeling the silk.

The moth lays its eggs, about five hundred in number, in August or September, and they hatch the following May, just at the time the mulberry comes into leaf. These little caterpillars are hatched and fed in-doors, and they eat like hungry school-boys for a month or more, until they are about three inches long. At this period they sicken and cast their skins, after which they begin eating as eagerly as ever. In about a month, however, the worms stop eating altogether, crawl up on the twigs which are placed on large trays, and begin to spin their cocoons. There are two little openings in the head of the worm, from which comes two thread-like substances resembling glue, from which the silk is made. These stick close together and form a flat thread. The silk-worm by moving its head about, wraps this thread around its body, wrapping from the outside inward, until it has completely inclosed itself in this silken blanket. Then it goes to sleep. If left to itself it would in two or three weeks bore its way out of this silky covering and come forth a feeble white moth. But as the cutting of this hole in the cocoon injures the fibers, only just enough for the next year's crop are allowed to come out. The rest are stifled in a hot oven.

After the outsides of the cocoons are removed they are placed in hot water which softens the gum that is in the silk so that it can be wound off on reels. The silk fiber is all in one piece, and about one thousand feet long. There is always a portion of the cocoon which is too tangled to be wound, and it is made into what is called spun silk. Spun silk is carded like wool. The removal of the natural gum, by boiling in strong soap suds, effects a considerable loss in weight, the cleansing process, however, causing it to take on very beautiful tints. This loss has led to the weighting of silk by mixing cheaper materials with it.

An artificial silk is made from the fiber of the ramie plant which grows in China and Malay. This is sometimes known as China silk. Mercerized cotton has also been treated so as to very successfully imitate silk.

COTTON.

The Plant.—Cotton is one of the most important vegetable fibers, distinguished from all other fibers by the peculiar twist it possesses which makes it especially adapted to spinning. It is cultivated between the twentieth and thirty-fifth parallels north of the equator. This is known as the cotton belt. Within this belt lie the cotton districts of the United States, Northern Mexico, Egypt, Northern Africa, Asia and India.

Although cotton is cultivated mainly for the fiber surrounding the seeds, its by-products, the seeds and stalks, are of great commercial importance, being manufactured into oil-meal, oil cakes, cottolene, etc. There are about fifty species of the cotton plant but only a few are cultivated, the best known and most commonly used being the "American Upland," which is now cultivated in many parts of the world. The two varieties grown in the United States are the "Sea Island" and the "Upland." The former is much more valuable because its fiber is longer. It is cultivated on the islands and low-lying coasts of South Carolina, Georgia and Florida. The latter, while not so valuable, furnishes most of the crop and is grown over a wide area.

The plant grows from seven to ten feet high. The leaves are sprinkled with small black dots. The hollyhock-like flowers are white and yellow when they first open, but two days later they turn a dull red. Surrounding the flowers are three or four cup-shaped green leaves which together are called squares. These remain after the petals have dropped, to serve as a protection to the bolls.

Cotton thrives best in a rich, deep soil with a hot, steamy atmosphere. It should have plenty of moisture while growing and a dryer period during the ripening and gathering of the crop. The most of the cotton crop is planted by the twentieth of May. Six weeks after it begins blossoming the first bolls are ready for picking. This is done by hand, and as the bolls do not all ripen at the same time, it is necessary to go over the field many times, and the picking often lasts until the middle of December. The cotton is gathered into baskets hung from the shoulders of the pickers.

The Preparation of the Fiber.—After the cotton is picked it is taken to the gin which separates the fiber from the seed. Until the cotton gin was invented in 1793, by a Connecticut teacher, then living in Georgia, the cultivation of cotton was not profitable, as one person could only clear the seeds from five or six pounds a day. This machine has revolving teeth which drag the cotton between parallel wires, leaving the seeds behind. With this machine a slave could clean about a thousand pounds in a day. This gave a wonderful impetus to the cotton industry, and its cultivation increased enormously.

After the seeds are removed the cotton is put up into bales weighing about five hundred pounds each, and is then ready for shipping. When these bales are received at the factory the cotton is so closely matted together that it must be broken up or loosened. This is done in the blending room where it is first run through heavily weighted and spiked rollers which pull the cotton apart. It is then blended or mixed to make it of uniform quality. After this it is taken to the carding room. Here the fibers are drawn parallel to one another and bits of leaves and unripe fibers removed, when it is put through the drawing frame, consisting of a pair of rollers. These parallel, untwisted fibers are now called "slivers." From the drawing frame these "slivers" go to the slubbing machines where it is lightly twisted and wound on bobbins. This process is repeated on similar machines each one drawing the thread out and twisting it a little more, until it is finally ready for spinning.

Spinning.—Two systems of spinning are in use at the present time, ring spinning and self-acting mule spinning. The former is done mostly by women and children, and produces a hard, round irregular yarn. The latter machines, operated only by men and very strong women, are complicated, but produce an exceedingly soft and fine yarn.

The thread used for sewing and for the manufacture of lace is made by twisting several fine threads together. Sewing thread is usually composed of from six to nine threads spun separately and then twisted into one. Thread is sometimes passed very rapidly through a flame which burns off the fuzz making it very smooth.

Weaving.—Three operations are necessary in the manufacture of cloth; First, the separation of the warp threads on the loom, so that the shuttle containing the woof can pass through. Second, the movement of the shuttle, back and forth, among the warp threads. Third, the beating up the woof.

FLAX.

The fibers of flax are spun and woven into a fabric called linen. This is one of the most ancient industries known to man. Linen is often mentioned in the Bible and the ancient Egyptians wrapped their mummies in this fabric. It is said that the finest linen of the present day looks coarse beside that from the Egyptian looms in the days of the Pharaohs. The Hebrew and Egyptian priests wore garments made of this fine linen.

The Plant.—Flax grows from two to three feet high, and has a blue flower. A field of flax in blossom is very beautiful.

While it is grown extensively in many parts of Europe, Asia and America, the soil and climate of Ireland, France and the Netherlands are especially adapted to its growth, and it is in these countries that it reaches its greatest perfection.

The fiber of the bark is the part of the plant used in the manufacture of cloth. Linseed oil is expressed from the seed.

The Preparation of the Fiber.—When the plant is ripe it is pulled up by the roots and beaten to loosen the seeds which are then shaken out. Next the stems are steeped in soft water and afterward allowed to ferment. They are then dried and passed between fluted rollers which breaks the woody part of the stems which are again beaten to remove this woody part from the fiber. The fiber is then made into bundles and sent to the mill to be spun, where it is first roughly sorted, the longest and best portions being separated from the short raveled ones. These inferior portions are called "tow."

The treatment of the flax fiber for spinning is similar to that of the cotton (page 92), being drawn and twisted and drawn out again, repeating this process several times.

Spinning.—Coarse and heavy yarns are spun dry, but fine yarn must be spun wet. Some varieties of velvet and velveteen are made from linen. Much of the so-called linen cloth of the present day is mixed with cotton or jute. The principles of weaving are the same as that of the cotton. See page 93.

For many centuries the weaving of linen was conducted as a household industry. The first attempt to manufacture it on a large scale was in England in 1253. It is now one of the national industries. Linen is bleached after it is woven. In the olden times it was spread upon the grass, or lawn, and the action of the sun, air and moisture whitened it, and for this reason it was called "lawn," and it is still so designated. In the modern process of bleaching, the linen is first singed by being passed rapidly over hot cylinders which makes the cloth smooth. It is then boiled in lime water, washed and afterwards scoured in a solution of sulphuric acid, exposed to the air for a time and again scoured. Lastly, it is boiled in soda-lye water and dried over hot tin rollers. The gloss on linen is made by first mangling, then starching, and finally running it between heavy rollers.

Linen is chiefly manufactured in France, Belgium, Germany, England and the United States. France is noted for the finest kinds of lawn and cambric, while Ireland excels in the production of table linen. The largest portion of the sheeting and toweling is made in Scotland. The linen manufactures of the United States consist principally of toweling and twine.

WOOL.

Wool is the fleecy covering of sheep. It is distinguished by its waviness and the scaly covering of the fibers. The scales are more pointed and protrude more than those of hair. This gives it a tendency to mat or felt. The waviness of wool is due to the spiral structure of the fibers. Next to cotton, wool is the most extensively used of all the textile fibers.

The Romans developed a breed of sheep having wool of exceeding fineness, and later introduced their sheep into Spain. Here they were still further improved, and it was not many years until Spain led the world in the production of wool. The fine wooled Merino sheep originated here. Australia and the United States are also great wool-producing countries.

Classification.—There are three classes of wool, classified according to the length, fineness and felting qualities: