CONTENTS.

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	Page.
Introduction	167
Fort Chimo and the surrounding region	167
Climate	172
Auroras	173
Vegetation	173
Animal life	174
Mammals	174
Birds	175
The native inhabitants of the country—general sketch	175
The Eskimo	175
The Indians	181
Special account of the people around Fort Chimo	184
The Koksoagmyut	184
Physical characteristics	184
Diseases	187
Marriage	188
Children	190
Burial customs	191
Religion	193
Outdoor life	202
Tattooing	207
Clothing	208
Dwellings	223
Household articles	228
Food and its preparation	232
Tobacco and snuff	234
Means of transportation	235
By water	235
On land	240
Weapons and other hunting implements	246
Hunting	249
Miscellaneous implements	252
Amusements	254
Art	259
Story-telling and folklore	260
Origin of the Innuit	261
The coming of the white people	261
Origin of living things on the earth and in the water	261
Origin of the guillemots	262
Origin of the raven	262
Origin of the quadrangular spots on the loon’s back	262
Origin of the gulls	263
Origin of the hawks	263
Origin of the swallow	263
The hare	263
The wolf	263
Lice	263
Origin of mosquitoes	264
Story of the man and his fox wife	264
The rivals	264
The jealous man	264
Story of the orphan boy	265
The origin of the sun, moon, and stars	266
Auroras	266
The sky	266
The winds	267
The Nenenot or “Naskopie”	267
Principal characteristics	267
Clothing	281
Preparation of the skins for clothing	292
Dwellings	298
Sweat houses	300
Household utensils, etc.	300
Tobacco and pipes	302
Means of transportation	304
By water	304
By land	308
Weapons	312
Hunting	316
Miscellaneous implements, tools, etc.	317
Amusements	320
Festivals	322
Folklore	327
Story of the wolverine and the brant	327
Story of the wolverine	327
The deer and the squirrel	328
The young man who went to live with the deer	328
The wolf’s daughter going to seek her lover	330
The devil punishing a liar	333
A wolverine destroys his sister	333
The rabbit and the frog	334
The wolverine and the rock	336
Creation of people by the wolverine and the muskrat	338
Origin of the whitish spot on the throat of the marten	338
The Indian and his beaver wife	339
The venturesome hare	340
The spirit guiding a child left by its parents	342
Fate of two Indian men	343
The starving wolverine	345
The starving Indians	349

ILLUSTRATIONS.

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		Page.
Plate XXXVI.	View on Koksoak River	170
XXXVII.	Eskimo tent	226
XXXVIII.	Stone tobacco pipes	302
XXXIX.	Birchbark canoe, Nenenot, Koksoak river pattern	304
XL.	Nenenot snowshoe—“swallow-tail”	308
XLI.	Nenenot snowshoe—“beaver-tail”	310
XLII.	Nenenot snowshoe—“round-end”	312
XLIII.	Doll, Indian woman, full dress, Nenenot	326
Fig. 21.	Eskimo grave.	192
22.	Magic doll	197
23.	Belt of magic doll	198
24.	Talisman attached to magic doll	199
25.	Talisman	199
26.	Talisman	199
27.	Talisman	200
28.	Eskimo woman’s amulet	201
29.	Eskimo birdskin cap	209
30.	Eskimo man’s deerskin coat (front)	210
31.	Eskimo man’s deerskin coat (back)	211
32.	Eskimo man’s sealskin coat (front)	212
33.	Eskimo man’s sealskin coat (side)	213
34.	Eskimo woman’s deerskin coat	214
35.	Eskimo woman’s deerskin coat	215
36.	Eskimo woman’s deerskin coat	215
37.	Eskimo woman’s deerskin coat	216
38.	Eskimo woman’s sealskin coat	216
39.	Eskimo woman’s deerskin coat	217
40.	Back view of same	217
41.	Eskimo boots	218
42.	Eskimo shoes	219
43.	Ice shoes, Hudson strait Eskimo	219
44.	Long waterproof sealskin mitten	220
45.	Waterproof gut frock	221
46.	Snow goggles—front	222
47.	Snow goggles—rear	223
48.	Deserted Eskimo snowhouses near Fort Chimo	224
49.	Soapstone lamp, Koksoagmyut	229
50.	Soapstone lamp, Koksoagmyut	229
51.	Soapstone lamp, Koksoagmyut	229
52.	Frame for drying mittens	230
53.	Soapstone kettle	230
54.	Soapstone kettle	231
55.	Wooden dish	231
56.	Sealskin bucket	232
57.	Sealskin cup	232
58.	Tobacco pouch	234
59.	Eskimo Umiak	235
60.	Dog whip	244
61.	Bow, East Main Eskimo (back)	246
62.	Bow, East Main Eskimo (side)	246
63.	Arrow, East Main Eskimo	247
64.	Arrow, East Main Eskimo	247
65.	Arrow, East Main Eskimo	247
66.	Bow case, East Main Eskimo	248
67.	Hand spear for killing seals, from kaiak, Koksoak	249
68.	Toggle head for hand spear	250
69.	Sealskin float	250
70.	Ivory snow knife, Koksoagmyut	253
71.	Back-scratcher, Koksoagmyut	253
72.	Ivory needle case, Koksoagmyut	254
73.	Ivory needle case, Koksoagmyut	254
74.	Sealskin needle cushion, with thimble, Koksoagmyut	254
75.	“Cup and ball,” Koksoagmyut	256
76.	Football and driver, Koksoagmyut	256
77.	Dominoes, Hudson strait Eskimo	257
78.	Eskimo doll, man	258
79.	Eskimo doll, woman	258
80.	Eskimo doll, woman	259
81.	Eskimo doll, woman	259
82.	Eskimo violin	259
83.	Birds carved in ivory	260
84.	Human figure carved in ivory	260
85.	Indian medicine lodge	274
86.	Indian amulet of bearskin	275
87.	Indian buckskin coat, man’s (front)	281
88.	Indian buckskin coat, man’s (back)	282
89.	Detail of pattern painted on Indian garment	282
90.	Detail of pattern painted on deerskin robe	283
91.	Indian buckskin leggings	283
92.	Indian moccasins	284
93.	Indian mittens	285
94.	Beaded headband, Nenenot	286
95.	Man’s winter coat (front)	287
96.	Man’s winter coat (back)	288
97.	Detail of ornamentation	288
98.	Man’s winter coat, with hood	289
99.	Man’s winter coat, with hood	290
100.	Nenenot woman in full winter dress	291
101.	Sealskin headband, Nenenot	292
102.	Skin scraper (front), Nenenot	292
103.	Skin scraper (side), Nenenot	292
104.	Skin-cleaning tool, Nenenot	293
105.	Skin-cleaning tool (iron-bladed), Nenenot	294
106.	Paint stick, Nenenot	296
107.		296
108.	Paint stick, Nenenot	296
109.	Paint stick, Nenenot	297
110.	Paint stick, Nenenot	297
111.	Paint cup, Nenenot	297
112.	Paint cup, Nenenot	297
113.	Paint cup, Nenenot	298
114.	Nenenot Indian tent	298
115.	Wooden bucket, Nenenot	301
116.	Birchbark basket, Nenenot	301
117.	Birchbark basket, Nenenot	301
118.	Stone pestle, Nenenot	302
119.	Wooden spoon or ladle, Nenenot	302
120.	Wooden spoon or ladle, Nenenot	302
121.	Wooden spoon or ladle, Nenenot	303
122.	Wooden spoon or ladle, Nenenot	303
123.	Stone tobacco pipe	304
124.	Pipe cleaner, Nenenot	304
125.	Spoon for applying grease to canoe	306
126.	Toboggan, Nenenot, side view	307
127.	Toboggan, Nenenot, from above	307
128.	Nenenot snowshoe, single bar	308
129.	Nenenot snowshoe, single bar	309
130.	Snowshoe needle, Nenenot	310
131.	Wooden snowshoe, Little Whale river	311
132.	Bow, Nenenot	312
133.	Arrow, Nenenot	313
134.	Arrow, Nenenot	313
135.	Arrow, Nenenot	313
136.	Arrow, Nenenot	313
137.	Deer lance, Nenenot	314
138.	White whale spear, Little Whale river	314
139.	Point of white whale spear enlarged	314
140.	Reindeer snare, Nenenot	315
141.	Crooked knife, Nenenot	317
142.	Awl, Nenenot	318
143.	Snow shovel, Nenenot	318
144.	Ice scoop, Nenenot	318
145.		319
146.	Comb, with birchbark case and cleaner	320
147.	Boards for woman’s hair	320
148.	Swimming board	321
149.	Fishhook and line	321
150.	Cup and ball, Nenenot	324
151.	Drum, Nenenot	324
152.	Drum, Little Whale river	325
153.	Rattle, Nenenot	326
154.	Target, reindeer, buck	326
155.	Target, reindeer, doe	326

 

ETHNOLOGY OF THE UNGAVA DISTRICT,
HUDSON BAY TERRITORY.

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By Lucien M. Turner.

(Edited by John Murdoch.)

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INTRODUCTION.

Ungava bay is on the northern coast of old Labrador—the last great bight of the strait between the ocean and the mouth of Hudson bay. Its chief affluent is Koksoak or South river, which is several hundred miles long and takes its rise in a picturesque festoonery of lakes looped through the highlands half way down to Quebec.

FORT CHIMO AND THE SURROUNDING REGION.

Fort Chimo is in longitude 68° 16´ west of Greenwich and latitude 58° 8´ north. The post is on the right bank of the Koksoak river, about 27 miles from its mouth. The elevation of the level tract on which the houses are situated is but a few feet above high-water mark. The location was selected on account of its comparative dryness, and also because the river affords a safer anchorage in that vicinity than lower down.

The early Moravian missionaries, long before established on the Atlantic coast, desired to extend their labors for the conversion of the Eskimo to their teachings. About the year 1825 a vessel ascended the Koksoak river for the purpose of selecting a new missionary station. Nearly opposite Fort Chimo is a beacon, yet standing, erected by the people of that vessel. Their reception among the natives was such that they gave a glowing account of it on their return. The Hudson Bay Company immediately took steps to erect a trading post upon the river, and a small party was sent in the year 1831 from Moose Factory to establish a trading post where the trade would appear to promise future development. The men remained there, obtaining a precarious subsistence, as the vessel delivering them supplies visited that place only once in two years. Their houses were simple, consisting of a single structure for the official in charge, another for the servants, and two more for the storage of goods. A palisade was erected around the houses to prevent the intrusion of the natives, Indians and Eskimo, who were so lately at war with each other that the rancorous feeling had not subsided and might break out afresh at any moment without warning. The remnants of the palisade were yet visible in 1882. The establishment of this trading post had a pacifying influence upon the natives, who soon found they could do better by procuring the many valuable fur-bearing animals than by engaging in a bloody strife, which the traders always deprecate and endeavor to prevent or suppress. After many trials to establish an overland communication with the stations on Hamilton inlet, it was found to be impracticable, and in 1843 the station was abandoned.

John M’Lean, in a work entitled “Twenty-five Years in the Hudson’s Bay Territory,”1 gives an account of that portion of the country that came under his knowledge from the year 1838 to 1843.

In the year 1866 the steamer Labrador was built and sent with a party to reestablish the post at Fort Chimo. Since 1866 the post has been a paying station, and in later years a good profit has been made.

Fort Chimo is the chief trading station of the Ungava district. The Ungava district proper is the area embraced by the watershed whose outflow drains into Ungava bay. The eastern boundary is formed by the foothills on the west side of the coast range, which is the western limit of Labrador. This range has a trend northwest and southeast to latitude 60°, where it makes a somewhat abrupt angle and pursues a nearly north course, terminating with Cape Chidley and the Buttons, the latter a low group of islets some 7 miles north of the cape. The southern boundary is the “Height of Land,” near latitude 55°. This region is estimated to be from 1,000 to 3,000 feet above sea level. The greater portion of it is comparatively level, and on its surface are innumerable lakes of various sizes, some of which are quite large. The western boundary is not so well known in the southern part of the region, as it has been seldom traversed. It seems to be a high elevation extending toward the north-northwest, as numerous streams run from the southwest and west toward the central or Koksoak valley. Eskimo who have traversed the region many times report that the elevated land abruptly ends near 58° 30´, and that there is formed a wide swampy tract, estimated to be about 80 miles wide, which opens to the northeast and southwest. The northwestern portion of the district is a great area abounding in abrupt hills and precipitous mountains of various heights. These heights, estimated to range no higher than 2,600 feet, terminate abruptly on the western end of the strait, and the numerous islands in that portion of the water are, doubtless, peaks of this same range continuing to the northwest.

It will be thus seen that the district of Ungava is a huge amphitheater opening to the north. The interior of the district is excessively varied by ridges and spurs of greater or less elevation. The farther south one travels, the higher and more irregularly disposed are the hills and mountains. These spurs are usually parallel to the main ranges, although isolated spurs occur which extend at right angles to the main range. The tops of the higher elevations are covered with snow for the entire year. The summits of the lower ones are shrouded with snow as early as the 1st of September, and by the 1st of October the snow line descends nearly to their bases. The lower lands are full of swampy tracts, lakes, and ponds.

The more elevated regions are totally destitute of vegetation, except the tripe des roches, which gives to the hills a somber color, anything but inspiring. Fully three-fourths of the more elevated region is, with the exception of black lichens, barren rock. Everywhere is the evidence of long continued glacial action. The southern exposures of all the hills show the same character of wearing, and, in many instances, a fine polish on the rocks forming their bases. This smoothness extends nearly to the summits of the higher peaks. These again are somewhat rougher and often broken into jagged, angular fragments, frequently of immense size. The more moderate elevations are usually rounded summits on whose higher portions may be found huge bowlders of rock having a different character from that upon which they rest, proving that they were carried there by masses of ice in the glacial ages. The northern extremity of all the ridges and spurs indicate that the glacial sheet moved to the north-northwest, for these portions of the rocks are so jagged and sharp edged as to appear to have been broken but yesterday.

The rivers of this district are numerous and several are of great size, although but two of them are navigable for more than 100 miles, and this only for boats of light draft.

The river usually known as George’s river (Kan´gûk¢lua´luksoak) is the largest on the eastern side. This stream takes its rise about latitude 55° and pursues a moderately tortuous course nearly northward and falls into the eastern side of Ungava Bay. It has a wide bay-like mouth narrowing rapidly at the mouth proper. Swift rapids are formed here on account of an island near the center. Beyond this the river expands and has an average width of half a mile for a distance of about 18 miles where the river bends eastward and forms rapids for over 2 miles. It is navigable for the steamer Labrador only about 12 miles. Beyond the rapids it runs tolerably smooth and deep for nearly 40 miles and thence to the source is a series of rapids and falls, rendering portages frequent, and making it utterly impracticable for even a heavy skiff to ascend beyond 70 miles from the mouth. Indians assert that high falls occur about 150 miles from the mouth of the George’s river. The water is said to fall from a terrific height, almost perpendicularly, and it causes the ground to tremble so that the thundering noise may be heard for more than a day’s journey from it.

The tide at the mouth of George’s river rises 53 feet, and at the Anchorage, opposite the newly established station of Fort George, some 12 miles from its mouth, 42 feet.

Whale river is the next important river toward the east. Off the mouth of this river is a huge island, locally known as Big island. This high island extends parallel to the course of the river, and a reef, connecting its upper end with the mainland, becomes dry at low water. The course of Whale river is not well known. About 40 miles up this stream it suddenly contracts and becomes a mere creek, forming the outlet of a large lake, whose position is not satisfactorily determined. It is to the banks of this lake that certain families of the Indians repair for summer fishing.

The next large river is the Koksoak. This stream is the largest in the district. It takes its rise from lakes situated on the plateau—the “Height of Land,”—and pursues a course having a general direction north-northeast. On emerging from the lake it is rather small, but forks and unites again about 40 miles below. The current is sluggish at the upper end, and the eastern branch is so narrow that the Indians have to part the overhanging alders and willows to afford their canoes a passage. This branch is said to be the shorter way to the lake and is not so difficult to ascend, the eastern branch being shallow and containing a number of rapids.

Below the junction of the branches the river rapidly becomes larger and contains several very high falls, below which the river flows northwest for a couple of hundred yards and then curves to the north-northeast for a distance of 5 miles. This portion is only about 700 feet wide. It then turns abruptly westward and rushes swiftly through a narrow gorge only 200 feet wide for a distance of about 7 miles. This course is noted for several rapids, through which a boat can not make its way without great difficulty. At the end of this 7-mile run the river again bends abruptly to the east, and continues that course with little northing until the last bend, some 65 miles below, is reached. At the lower end of the 7-mile run the ledges and reefs are too numerous to count. From this place to the mouth of the Larch river the Koksoak is obstructed by islands, bars, and shoals. Below these, however, it becomes quite broad, until nearly opposite the high point or promontory below the mouth of the Larch (Pl. XXXVI). From this locality it is monotonous till the last bend is reached, some 4 miles above Fort Chimo, where it suddenly turns to the north and pursues that direction to the sea with little variation. At the last bend, however, a large island, locally known as Big island, not only obstructs but ends navigation for boats drawing over 6 feet. Small boats, such as skiffs and native boats, ascend to the lower end of 7-mile run. The principal obstruction to travel in any kind of vessel in the Koksoak from Big island to the mouth of the Larch river is the presence of two falls or rapids about 40 miles from Fort Chimo.

BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY ELEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXXVI

see caption

VIEW ON KOKSOAK RIVER.

The extreme rise and fall of the tide at the mouth of the river is 62 feet 3 inches. The usual rise and fall is from 8 to 12 feet less, depending on the stage of the river. At Fort Chimo the tide rises as much as 31 feet. The backwater is held in check as far as the upper rapids in a common stage of water, and during a high rise in the month of June the water is “backed” some 3 miles beyond the upper rapids.

The branches of the Koksoak river are few and unimportant. The larger tributary is the Larch river. It is a rapid and almost unnavigable stream of variable depth, mostly shallow, and 100 to nearly 400 yards wide.

At about 40 miles from its mouth the Larch forks, the lower or southwest fork draining the eastern sides of the same mountains whose western slopes are drained by the Little Whale river. This southwest fork of the Larch river is quite small and scarcely capable of being ascended, although it may, with great caution, be descended. This is the course followed by the Little Whale river Indians when they traverse the country to join the Naskopies of the Koksoak valley. The northwest branch of the Larch is still smaller and is reported to issue from the swampy tract of land in about latitude 58° 30´.

The next large river is the Leaf. Its mouth is about 34 miles northwest of Fort Chimo, and it flows into a peculiarly shaped bay named Tass´iyak, or “like a lake.” The length of the river proper is estimated to be but 40 miles, flowing from a very long and narrow lake, having its longer axis extending southwestward and draining the greater part of the swampy tract lying in latitude 58° 30´. The southwestern portion of this tract is merely an area covered with innumerable small lakes so intimately connected by short water courses that it is difficult to determine whether water or land constitutes the greater part of the area. The rivers to the west are of less importance and drain the rugged area forming the northwestern portion of the district, or that part lying under the western third of Hudson strait.

The principal portion of Hudson strait that came under my observation is Ungava bay. This bay is a pocket-shaped body of water lying south of the strait and toward its eastern end. Soundings in various portions of this bay indicate a depth of 28 to 70 fathoms for the central area. The bottom appears to be uniformly the washings from the freshwater streams. The extreme tides of Hudson strait tend to produce the most violent currents in this bay. Opposite the entrance of Leaf river bay is a whirlpool of considerable size, which causes much trouble to navigation. It is safe enough at high water but very dangerous at half-tide.