Ausonius was a Christian, but his poems have no specifically Christian contents. Prudentius. The most important specifically Christian poet of the fourth century is Aurelius Prudentius Clemens, who was born in Spain, at or near Saragossa, in 348 A. D., studied and practised oratory, and held important offices. His life was apparently passed for the most part in Spain, but at one time he held a position at the imperial court of Theodosius. The date of his death is probably about 410 A. D. Prudentius, like Ausonius, employs hexameters and various other classic metres, in which he departs occasionally, but not often, from the rules of quantitative verse. His poems, both epic and lyric, are religious and inspired by earnest faith and genuine enthusiasm. He excels in narrative and description, in wealth and brilliancy of language, but lacks the virtue of simplicity. His poetry was intended to appeal to educated readers, not to the people, and the cultured classes of the time were only too thoroughly accustomed to an artificial style. Yet, in spite of his faults of style, Prudentius is the most important Christian poet of the fourth century, and among the other poets of the time none equal him except Ausonius and Claudian.
Claudius Claudianus, the last important Roman poet, was, like Livius Andronicus, with whom Roman poetry began, a Greek by birth. Claudian. He was born in Asia Minor, but lived so long at Alexandria that he called that centre of learning his fatherland (patria). In 395 A. D. he went to Rome, where he was attached to the court of Honorius, from whom he received the rank of patrician and the honor of a statue in the Forum of Trajan. He remained at Rome, or rather at Milan, until 404 A. D., but about that time returned to Alexandria, and married a noble woman of the place, being aided in his suit by Serena, niece and adopted daughter of the Emperor Theodosius and wife of Stilicho. Claudian’s poems all appear to have been written from 395 to 404 A. D., and throughout this period he is the faithful follower and enthusiastic admirer of Stilicho, Whether Stilicho’s death in 408 A. D. relegated Claudian to obscurity, or the poet himself died at about the same time as his patron, can not now be determined. Claudian’s works comprise epic poems on the important events of his times, such as the Gothic war and the war against Gildo, mythological epics, and shorter miscellaneous poems. Among the historical epics are included poems in praise of Honorius and other patrons of the poet, as well as metrical attacks upon Rufinus and Eutropius. The only remains of his mythological epics are three books of a poem, on the Rape of Proserpine, and somewhat more than one hundred lines of a Gigantomachia. In these poems Claudian shows the mythological and antiquarian learning which had for centuries been characteristic of the Alexandrian school of poetry. That school was already old when it was imitated by Catullus and his contemporaries in the early days of Roman poetry, and now, when Roman literature was dying, Alexandria continued to train learned poets. Had Claudian not gone to Italy, he would doubtless have continued to write in his native Greek, and might, as a Greek poet, have rivalled his contemporary Nonnus. In his historical and miscellaneous poems also Claudian exhibits much Alexandrian learning, and at the same time shows an intimate acquaintance with the earlier Roman poets, which is somewhat surprising in one who was educated in the Greek-speaking provinces of the east. It is equally surprising that Claudian uses the Latin language with an ease and grace not attained by any of his contemporaries. His verse is correct, dignified, and harmonious, his diction pure and classical. In these respects, as well as in wealth of imagery, brilliancy of narrative, and skill in composition, he is unequalled by any Roman poet after Statius. His historical poems must be used with caution by historians, for, although facts are not invented, they are presented in a strong light, or left in obscurity, according to the effect they might have upon the reputation of the poet’s friends or enemies. In the exuberance of his praise, Claudian equals the contemporary prose panegyrists, and surpasses the early Alexandrian and most of the later Roman poets. Among his miscellaneous poems none is so well known in modern times, or so modern in tone, as the brief elegy of only twenty-two lines, on an old man of Verona, who never left his suburb, who pressed his staff upon the same sand in which he had crept, counted his years by the changes of crops, not by consuls, and saw the trees grow old which he had seen as little sprouts. The advantages of a quiet, humble life have seldom been more charmingly set forth than in this poem.
With all his learning, skill, and genuine poetic inspiration, Claudian is still the belated singer of a worn-out empire and a dying civilization. Rome was no longer the mighty and unquestioned ruler of the world. The poet whose chief task it was to sing the praises of Stilicho, and spread the glory of his victories, must needs shut his eyes, so far as possible, to the evident decay, but he could not simulate utter blindness. In the beginning of his poem on the war with Gildo, Claudian shows that the feebleness and old age of Rome were not hidden from him. He describes the personified city, the goddess Roma, as she approaches Olympus to beg for aid against Gildo, whose revolt, involving the loss of the African grain supply, threatened to expose the city to famine:
Even the poet who sang of Rome’s victories could portray her in such terms as these. Namatianus. Yet the tradition of Roman greatness still survived. In the year 416, Rutilius Claudius Namatianus, a Gaul who had risen to the position of præfectus urbi at Rome, was obliged to return to Gaul to attend to his property, which had been laid waste by the Goths. The journey was the occasion of a poem in two books, most of which is preserved. It is written in elegiacs, with much still and feeling. Many episodes and descriptions are inserted in the narrative, but no passage is so striking as that in which the traveller, passing out from the Ostian gate, addresses the imperial city:
The history of Roman poetry is virtually at an end with Claudian. Avianus. Sedulius. Dracontius. Other poets there were, but none whose works are living and breathing exponents of the ancient Roman life. About 400 A. D. Avianus published forty-two fables of Æsop in elegiac verse; about the middle of the fifth century the presbyter Sedulius wrote several religious poems, in which he shows acquaintance not with Biblical literature alone, but also with the Latin classics; and at the end of the century the African poet Blossius Æmilius Dracontius wrote a didactic poem On the Praise of God, in three books, a number of short epics, chiefly mythological, and several other poems. Dracontius is not unskillful in his versification and his use of language, and his poems prove that rhetorical training was still to be found in Africa. Moreover, his knowledge of the Roman classics is as evident as his knowledge of the Bible. But neither Dracontius nor the other poets whose works are preserved to us from the fifth century could do more than help to pass on to the Middle Ages something of the ancient feeling for beauty of form in literature. And even that had ceased to be understood by the people.
CONCLUSION
The end of the ancient civilization—Boëthius, about 480-524 A. D.—Later literature no longer Roman—Practical character of Roman literature—The first period—The Augustan period—The period of the empire—Our debt to the Romans.
Long before the end of the fifth century the power of Rome was broken, and the centre of what had been the Roman empire was at Constantinople. The western provinces were in the hands of barbarians, Angles and Saxons ruled in Britain, Franks in northern Gaul, Visigoths in southern Gaul and Spain, and Vandals in Africa. The end of the old civilization. Italy itself had been repeatedly overrun by hardy warriors from the north, and Rome had twice been sacked, by the Goths under Alaric in 410 and by the Vandals under Genseric in 455 A. D. With the establishment by Theodoric, in 493 A. D., of the Gothic kingdom with its seat at Ravenna, the last vestige of the Roman empire of the West passed away. Henceforth western Europe is the scene of strife and disorder, through which men were to struggle onward to the new order of modern life. In the empire of the East much of the old civilization survived, and throughout the Middle Ages the ancient culture still shed some rays of light from Constantinople to the darkened west; but in western Europe there was little culture, and learning was for the most part shut up in the walls of monasteries.
The last writer who seems to belong to the old civilization is Boëthius. Anicius Manlius Torquatus Severinus Boëthius was a Roman of noble birth and exalted station. Boëthius. He was born about 480 A. D., and after his father’s death was adopted by the patrician Symmachus, whose daughter he afterwards married. In 500 A. D. he delivered in the senate a speech in honor of Theodoric, who made frequent use of his learning and literary skill. He held important offices at Rome, received the title of patrician and in 510 A. D. became consul without a colleague. In 522 A. D. his two sons were made consuls, and the joyful father delivered an oration in praise of the Gothic king to whose favor they owed their elevation. But that favor was destined soon to pass from Boëthius. The emperor of the East, Justin, tried to stir up the Catholic Italians to revolt against the Arian Theodoric. Boëthius was suspected, arrested, and put to death with tortures in 524 A. D. The servile senate decreed his death without even the formality of a trial.
Boëthius was a prolific writer. He translated from the Greek various philosophical and mathematical treatises, to some of which he added commentaries, and the importance of the Aristotelian logic during the Middle Ages is in great measure due to him; he also wrote a bucolic poem, which is lost, and several treatises on points of Christian doctrine; but the work by which he is now best known, and to which he owes his reputation as the last Roman author, is the treatise On the Consolation of Philosophy (De Consolatione Philosophiæ), which he wrote in prison while waiting for his condemnation. The Consolation of Philosophy. This work consists of five books, and has the literary form of a satura—that is, the prose is interrupted and varied by the insertion of passages in verse. These metrical passages, although their rhythms and diction are excellent, do not show the same depth of thought as the prose portions. This is explained by the fact that the prose portions of the treatise are derived in great measure from the Protrepticus of Aristotle, while the verses are more entirely the work of Boëthius himself. It is not likely that Boëthius employed the Protrepticus directly, but he probably had before him some work in which Aristotle’s teachings had been modified by the eclecticism of the later Platonists. Everywhere noble sentiments are expressed, but without the slightest indication of Christianity, or of any specific religion. The names of the pagan deities are used, but Boëthius believes in them no more than did Milton or the numerous writers of the eighteenth century in whose works their names occur. The attitude of Boëthius is throughout that of a cultivated and intellectual man who seeks for consolation when in trouble not in faith, but in reason. In the beginning of the work he laments his hard fate, when Philosophy appears before him in the form of a woman, and a dialogue ensues, in which the unimportance of what is ordinarily termed good or bad fortune, the nature of Providence, the divine order of the world, chance, free will, and similar subjects, are discussed. The style is the artificial, ornate style of the time, held in check by the logical sequence of the argument. Boëthius was a Christian, but in his adversity he turned to philosophy for consolation, and his philosophy is no more Christian than is that of Cicero. Yet his teachings, though not belonging to any one religion, are essentially religious. It is not wonderful that the Consolation was much read in the Middle Ages, and has continued to find many readers in later times.
There were still, in the sixth century, men who, like Boëthius, could find, amid the disorders of the times, the leisure and the taste for study; and the only kind of study possible was that of the ancient literature. Later literature no longer Roman. But Boëthius is the last in whom the ancient thoughts and feelings appear clad in literary form. Throughout the Middle Ages some of the classical writers, especially Virgil, were read and copied in monasteries, and those laymen who received a clerkly education learned Latin as the only language (except the more distant and difficult Greek) in which a literature existed; but Latin was then, as now, a language of the past, even though it was still used for literary purposes, and the ancient civilization was far less understood than now. Writings in Latin after Boëthius belong not to Roman literature, but to the literature of the church and to that of the various nations of Europe.
The date of the beginning of Roman literature can be fixed almost to a year, for there was no Roman literature before Livius Andronicus. At that time Latin imitations of Greek works were introduced to add to the attractions of public entertainments and to make the young acquainted with the history of the past. The first period of Roman literature. As the republic grew in power, literature, still in imitation of the Greek, but expressing more and more completely the Roman character, developed in all directions, but especially in prose. The orators cultivated perfection in speech that they might move the judges, the senate, or the people; historians hoped that the records of the past would have a practical effect upon the deeds of the future, or they aimed, like Cæsar in his Commentaries, to further their own immediate ends; and Cicero adapted Greek philosophy to Roman readers in order that the republic might have wise and good citizens. The practical purpose of the lyric poetry of Catullus and his contemporary poets is less evident, though even lyric verse may serve political ends, and yet there seems to have been in the careful imitation of learned Alexandrian works a deliberate educational purpose. Certainly in all branches of literature except lyric poetry throughout the republican period a practical purpose, and usually a political purpose, is almost invariably to be found. Literature as developed by the Greeks seemed to the Romans to possess practical utility, and the great works of the republican period were created by practical men to aid in the attainment of their ends.
In the Augustan period the practical purpose of literature is even more evident than in the earlier years. The Augustan period. In the transition from the republic to the monarchy it was desirable that the minds of men should not be too much occupied with politics, and literature was naturally encouraged by Augustus as an outlet for intellectual energy which might otherwise have turned to political matters. It was also desirable that the Julian family be connected as closely as possible with the beginnings of Rome, and how could that be done better than by such a poem as the Æneid? The immediate practical purpose of Virgil’s Georgics is evident. The poems of Horace, too, are in part openly intended to increase the popular prestige of the imperial house, and the mere fact that the poet was known to be the friend of the emperor would add as much to the glory of the one as of the other. The greatness of poetry in this period is due directly to the encouragement of Augustus, and his encouragement had a practical purpose. That prose, especially oratory, declined at this time is due to the fact that the orator was no longer the great power in the state.
Under the empire the influence of literature upon politics disappeared. Oratory no longer led to the highest power, poetry must, under some emperors at least, be careful not to overstep prescribed limits, and history could not safely record all facts with their causes and results. Even philosophical speculation was not safe if it led to practical conclusions adverse to the government. The imperial period. It was precisely those branches of literature which might be used for political purposes that the imperial government could hardly fail to discourage directly or indirectly, and those were the branches in which the practical Romans naturally excelled. There were, to be sure, emperors who encouraged literature, but their encouragement, leading to flattery and artificial eloquence, was little likely to raise the quality, even though it increased the quantity, of literary production. With its practical importance Roman literature loses its vigor. Aside from Tacitus and Juvenal, hardly a single powerful and vigorous author appears in the imperial period until, with the growth of Christianity, literature again acquires practical importance. That literature maintained for so many years a relatively high degree of excellence is due to the constant influence of Greece, which counteracted to some extent the forces that tended to destroy all literary life. Thus Roman literature lingered on until after the breaking up of the Roman empire.
Only a small part of the great bulk of Roman literature is preserved to us, but that part includes the greatest works of the best period. Those are worthy subjects of study for their beauty of form, their clearness of thought, their power, their vigor, and their ethical qualities. The productions of the imperial period are inferior in quality to those of the republican and the Augustan times, though their quantity is proportionate to the duration of the empire; but these works also are proper subjects of study, for they also express the character of the Romans.
Three ancient peoples have impressed themselves strongly upon the nations of Europe and America—the Hebrews, the Greeks, and the Romans. To the first we owe the foundations of our religion, to the second the beginnings of all arts and sciences, to the Romans we are indebted for the adaptation of the arts and sciences, of philosophy, and even of religion to civilized life. Our debt to the Romans. The names of our months are Roman, and our calendar is, with slight necessary changes, that established by Julius Cæsar. The laws of continental Europe and, though to a less degree, of England and the United States, are based upon Roman law as finally established under Justinian. The so-called Gothic architecture, which arose in France in the Middle Ages and which is still the prevailing style of our churches, can be traced back step by step to Roman buildings, and though Roman architecture was dependent upon that of Greece, it was through Rome that western Europe learned to use the column, the arch, and the vault. The beautiful architecture of the Renaissance is a conscious imitation of that of Rome. The Romans, too, in the early centuries of the Christian church, did their full share to systematize Christian belief, to reconcile it with philosophy, and to establish a reasonable form of church government. The results of their labors are inherited directly by the Roman Catholic church, and indirectly or partially by Protestants. There is hardly a side of modern life which is not more or less affected by ancient Rome; while the dignity, the sturdy manhood, the stoical disregard of fortune, the patriotism, and the vigorous earnestness expressed in Roman literature have a powerful influence in developing what is best in modern manhood. Roman literature will continue to be an important object of study as long as men still feel their obligations to the past, or are capable of learning from the example and precepts of other ages.
[This is not intended to be an exhaustive bibliography, but is merely an attempt to refer the student to some of the best and most available sources of information. Books in foreign languages, and editions with notes in foreign languages, are mentioned only in exceptional cases and for special reasons. Further bibliographical information is to be found in the larger histories of Roman literature, in Engelmann’s Bibliotheca Scriptorum Classicorum, the monthly lists in the Classical Review, and the Guide to the Choice of Classical Books, by J. B. Mayor, London, 1879, D. Nutt; with its New Supplement, 1896.]
C. T. Cruttwell. History of Roman Literature, London, 1877, Griffin.
J. W. Mackail. Latin Literature, London, 1895, Murray; New York, Scribner’s.
G. A. Simcox. History of Latin Literature, London and New York, 1883, Longmans, 2 vols.
G. Middleton and T. R. Mills. Handbook to Latin Authors, London and New York, 1896, Macmillan.
W. Y. Sellar. The Roman Poets of the Republic, Oxford, 2d ed. 1889; Poets of the Augustan Age (Virgil), Oxford, 1891; Horace and the Elegiac Poets, Oxford, 1892.
R. Y. Tyrrell. Latin Poetry, Boston, 1895, Houghton & Mifflin.
G. F. Aly. Geschichte der römischen Litteratur, Berlin, 1894, R. Gaertner.
G. Bernhardy. Grundriss der römischen Litteratur, 5th ed. Halle, 1872.
W. S. Teuffel. Geschichte der römischen Litteratur, 5th ed. revised by L. Schwabe, Leipzig, 1890, Teubner; translated by G. C. W. Warr, 2 vols., London, 1891, Bell. [Especially good for bibliography.]
M. Schanz. Römische Litteraturgeschichte, Munich, 2d ed. 1898-1901, Beck. 3 vols. (to Constantine); vol. iv (to Justinian) in preparation.
O. Ribbeck. Geschichte der römischen Dichtung. 3 vols. Stuttgart, 1887-’92.
C. Lamarre. Histoire de la Littérature latine depuis la Fondation de Rome jusqu’à la Fin du Gouvernement Républicain; Paris, 1901, Delagrave. 4 vols. [Vol. iv contains selections from Latin literature in the original and in French translation. The literature of the imperial period is to be treated in subsequent volumes.]
G. Michaut. Le Génie latin. Paris, 1900, Fontemoing. [Interesting and suggestive.]
A useful series of books called “Ancient Classics for English Readers” contains Cæsar, by Anthony Trollope; Catullus, Tibullus, and Propertius, by James Davies; Cicero, by W. L. Collins; Horace, by Theodore Martin; Juvenal, by E. Walford; Livy, by W. L. Collins; Lucretius, by Mallock; Ovid, by A. Church; Plautus and Terence, by W. L. Collins; Pliny, by A. Church and W. J. Brodribb; Tacitus, by W. B. Donne; and Virgil, by W. L. Collins. These are not translations, but essays illustrated by extracts. Published in America by the J. B. Lippincott Co.
[This list contains the titles of collections referred to below. Many other collections exist, the titles of which are to be found in larger bibliographies.]
Poetae Latini Minores, ed. Baehrens. 5 vols. Leipzig, 1879-’83, Teubner series.
Fragmenta Poetarum Romanorum, ed. Baehrens, Leipzig, 1886, Teubner series.
Corpus Poetarum Latinorum, ed. J. P. Postgate; parts i, ii, (vol. i), and iii. London, 1893-1900, Bell.
Patrologia Latina, ed. Migne, Paris. [221 vols. containing the works of ecclesiastical writers of Latin from the Apostolic times to those of Pope Innocent III.]
Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum. [A series of ecclesiastical writings, published by the Imperial Academy at Vienna, begun in 1866 and not yet completed.]
Scaenicae Romanorum Poesis Fragmenta, ed. O. Ribbeck. 2 vols. Leipzig, 1897-’98, Teubner series. [Vol. i, Tragicorum Romanorum Fragmenta; vol. ii, Comicorum Romanorum Fragmenta.]
Grammatici Latini, ed. H. Keil, Leipzig, 1857-’80, Teubner, 7 vols.
Historicorum Romanorum Relliquiae, ed. H. Peter, vol. i, Leipzig, 1870, Teubner.
Historicorum Romanorum Fragmenta, ed. H. Peter, Leipzig, 1883, Teubner series.
Scriptores Historiae Augustae, ed. H. Peter, Leipzig. 2 vols. Teubner series.
Anthologia Latina, ed. F. Bücheler and A. Riese, Leipzig, 1870-’97. 2 vols. Teubner series.
XII Panegyrici Latini, ed. Baehrens. Leipzig, 1874, Teubner series.
Oratorum Romanorum Fragmenta, ed. Meyer. Paris, 1837.
Accius. Text in Fragm. Poet. Rom., vol. i, and Scaen. Rom. Poes. Fragm., vol. i.
Ætna. Text in Corp. Poet. Lat., part iii, and Poet. Lat. Min., vol. ii. Text with notes and translation by Robinson Ellis, Oxford, 1901.
Ambrosius (St. Ambrose). Text, Patrologia Latina, vols. xiv-xvii.
Ammianus Marcellinus. Text. Gardthausen, Leipzig. 3 vols. Teubner series.
Ampelius. Text. Wölfflin in Halm’s Florus, Leipzig, 1854, Teubner series.
Andronicus. See Livius.
Aphthonius. Text in Grammat. Lat., vol. vi.
Apuleius. Text with Latin notes. Hildebrand, Leipzig, 1842. 2 vols.
Translation. Sir George Head, London, 1851; anonymous, in Bohn’s Library.
Arnobius. Text. Reifferscheid, vol. iv of Corp. Script. Eccl. Lat. Also in Patrol. Lat., vol. v.
Atta. Text in Scaen. Rom. Poesis Fragm., vol. ii,
Atticus. Text in Hist. Rom. Fr.
Augustinus (St. Augustine). Text. Patrol. Lat., vols. xxxii-xlvii; De Civitate Dei, Dombart, Leipzig, 1877, 2 vols., Teubner series; Confessiones, Raumer, Gütersloh, 1876, Bertelsmann.
Augustus. Monumentum Ancyranum, Mommsen, 2d ed. Berlin, 1883, Weidmann; W. Fairley (with English translation), Philadelphia, 1898, the University of Philadelphia.
Fragments, Weichart, Grimma, 1845.
Aurelius (Marcus Aurelius). See Fronto.
Ausonius. Text. Peiper, Leipzig, 1886, Teubner series.
Avianus. Text. Poet. Lat. Min. vol. v; critical text and notes. R. Ellis, Oxford, 1887.
Avienus. Crit. text. Holder, Innsbruck, 1887, Wagner.
Boëthius. Text. Peiper, Leipzig, 1871, Teubner series.
Translation. H. E. James, London, 1897, Elliot Stock; Fox, in Bohn’s Library.
Cæsar. Text. Kübler, Leipzig, 1893-1897, Teubner series. 3 vols.
Translation. W. A. McDevitte, Bohn’s Library. Text and notes. The Gallic War, Allen & Greenough, Boston, Ginn & Co.; The Civil War, Perrin, New York, University Publishing Co. Many other school editions exist.
Calpurnius. Text. Poet. Lat. Min., vol. iii; with Nemesianus, Text and Latin notes, Schenkl, Leipzig and Prague, 1885.
Capella. See Martianus.
Cato. De Agricultura. Text and Latin notes, Keil, Leipzig, 1884-’94, Teubner. [Two vols. with Varro, Res Rusticae.]
Other works. Text and Latin notes. Jordan, Leipzig, 1860, Teubner.
Catonis Disticha. Poet. Lat. Min., vol. iii.
Catullus. Text. Mueller, Leipzig, 1885, Teubner series. [With Tibullus, Propertius, the fragments of Laevius, Calvus, Cinna, and others, and the Priapea]; crit. text with appendices, R. Ellis, 2d ed., Oxford, 1878.
Annotated edition. Merrill, Boston, 1893, Ginn & Co.
Commentary. R. Ellis, 2d ed., Oxford, 1889.
Translation (verse). Theodore Martin, Edinburgh and London, 1875, Blackwood.
Celsus. Text. Daremberg, Leipzig, 1859, Teubner series.
Translation. J. Grieve, London, 1756.
Censorinus. Text. Hultsch, Leipzig, 1867, Teubner series; crit. text, J. Cholodniak, St. Petersburg, 1889.
Charisius. Text in Gram. Lat., vol. i.
Cicero. Text. Baiter and Kayser, Leipzig, 1860-’69, B. Tauchnitz, 11 vols.; Müller, Klotz, and others, Leipzig, Teubner series, 10 vols. [Editions of separate works and selections are numerous.]
Correspondence, arranged according to its chronological order, with commentary and introductory essays. R. Y. Tyrrell and L. C. Purser, Dublin and London, 1855-1901. 7 vols [vol. i in 2d ed.]
Translation. Orations, C. D. Yonge, 4 vols.; On Oratory and Orators, with Letters to Quintus and Brutus, J. S. Watson; On the Nature of the Gods, Divination, Fate, Laws, a Republic, and Consulship, C. D. Yonge and F. Barham; Academics, De Finibus, and Tusculan Questions, C. D. Yonge; Offices, or Moral Duties, Cato Major, an Essay on Old Age, Lælius, an Essay on Friendship, Scipio’s Dream, Paradoxes, Letter to Quintus on Magistrates, C. R. Edmonds; Letters, E. Shuckburgh, 4 vols. Bohn’s Library.
Life. W. Forsyth, London, 1863, Murray; New York, Scribner’s.
Cincius Alimentus. Text in Hist. Rom. Rell.
Ciris. Text in Poet. Lat. Min., vol. ii.
Claudian. Text. Koch, Leipzig, 1893, Teubner series.
Translation. Hawkins, London, 1817, 2 vols.
Columella. Text in Scriptores Rei Rusticae, ed. Schneider, Leipzig, 1794-’97; De Arboribus, text, Lundström, Upsala, 1897.
Translation. Anonymous, London, 1745.
Commodianus. Text. Ludwig, Leipzig, 1877-’78, 2 vols. Teubner series.
Consolatio ad Liviam. Text in Poet. Lat. Min., vol. i.
Cornificius (See Cicero ad Herennium). Text. Marx, Leipzig, 1894, Teubner.
Culex. Text in Poet. Lat. Min., vol. ii.
Curtius Rufus, Text. Vogel, Leipzig, 1881, Teubner series,
Translation. John Digby, 3d ed. corr. by Young, London, 1747.
Cyprian. Text. Hartel, Vienna, 1868-’71, 4 vols. in Corp. Script. Eccl. Lat.
Dares. Text. Meister, Leipzig, 1873, Teubner series.
Dictys. Text. Meister, Leipzig, 1872, Teubner series.
Diomedes. Text in Gram. Lat.
Dioscorides. Text in Gram. Lat.
Diræ. Text in Poet. Lat. Min., Vol. ii.
Donatus. Text in Gram. Lat. and in the introductions to early editions of Terence.
Ennius. Text in Fragm. Poet. Rom. and Corp. Poet. Lat., vol. i.
Eutropius. Text. Rühl, Leipzig, 1887, Teubner series.
Translation. See Justin.
Fenestella. Text in Hist. Rom. Fragm.
Festus (Rufius). Text. Wagner, Prague, 1886.
Festus (Sextus Pompeius). Text. Thewrewk, Budapest, 1889.
Firmicus Maternus. Text, Halm, Vienna, 1867, in Corp. Script. Eccl. Lat., vol. ii; Baehrens, Leipzig, 1886, Teubner series.
Florus. Text. Halm, Leipzig, 1854, Teubner series.
Frontinus. Strategemata. Text. Gundermann, Leipzig, 1888, Teubner series.
Translation. R. Scott, London, 1811.
De Aquis Urbis Romae. Text. Bücheler, Leipzig, 1858, Teubner.
Text with translation and discussion. C. Herschel, Boston, 1899, Dana, Estes & Co.
Fronto. Text. Naber, Leipzig, 1867, Teubner.
Gaius. Text with translation and notes. Poste, 3d ed., Oxford, 1890.
Gellius. Text. Hertz, Leipzig, 1887, Teubner series, 2 vols.
Crit. Text. Hertz, Leipzig, 1894, Teubner, 2 vols.
Translation. Beloe, London, 1795, 3 vols.
Germanicus. Text in Poet. Lat. Min., vol. i.
Gratius. Text in Poet. Lat. Min., vol. i; Corp. Poet. Lat., part iii.
Hieronymus. See Jerome.
Hilarius (St. Hilary). Text. Patrol Lat., vols. ix and x.
Hirtius. Text in complete editions of Cæsar.
Horace. Text in Corp. Poet. Lat., vol. i; Kellar and Häussner, 2d ed. Prague, 1892. Annotated editions are numerous.
Translation (verse). Theodore Martin, Edinburgh and London, 1881, Blackwood, 2 vols. Odes and Epodes, Lord Lytton, Edinburgh and London, 1869, New York, 1870.
Hyginus. Text. M. Schmidt, Jena, 1872.
Hyginus Gromaticus. Text. Domaszewski, Leipzig, 1887.
Jerome. Text. Patrol. Lat., vols. xxii-xxx. De Viris Illustribus, Herding, Leipzig, 1879, Teubner series.
Julius. See Cæsar.
Julius Cæsar Strabo. Text in Orat. Rom. Fragm.
Julius Victor. Text in Orelli’s Cicero, vol. v, p. 195, and in Halm’s Rhetores Minores, p. 371.
Justin. Text. Jeep, Leipzig, 1859, Teubner series; Hallberg, Paris, 1875.
Translation. Watson, London, 1853, Bohn’s Library, [with Cornelius Nepos and Eutropius].
Juvenal. Text. Bücheler, Berlin, 2d ed. 1886, Weidmann [with Persius and Sulpicia].
Annotated edition. Pearson & Strong, Oxford, 1892.
Translation. (Prose) Leeper, London, 1891, 2d ed. Macmillan [see also Lucilius]; (verse) Dryden, in Dryden’s works.
Lactantius. Text. Patrol Lat., vols. vi and vii. [Some of his works have appeared in Corp. Script. Eccl. Lat. The Poem on the Phœnix is in Poet. Lat. Min., vol. ii.]
Lampridius. Text in Scriptores Historiae Augustae.
Livius Andronicus. Text in Fragm. Poet. Rom. and Scaen. Rom. Poesis Fragm., vols. i and ii.
Livy. Text. Weissenborn, Leipzig, 1878, Teubner series, 6 vols.
Crit. Text. Madvig and Ussing, Copenhagen, 4th ed. 1886 and later. 4 vols.
Translation. Spillan, Edmunds, and McDevitte, London, Bohn’s Library. 4 vols.
Lucan. Text in Corp. Poet. Lat., part iii; Hosius, Leipzig, 1892. Teubner series.
Translation (verse). N. Rowe, London, 1807. 3 vols.
Lucilius. Text in Fragm. Poet. Rom.
Translation. Evans, London, Bohn’s Library. [Juvenal, Persius, Sulpicia, and Lucilius.]
Lucretius. Text. Munro, London, Bell; also in Harper’s Classical Texts.
Crit. Text. Lachmann, Berlin, 1866. 2 vols.
Text and notes. Munro, London, 4th ed. 1891-’93, Bell. 3 vols., the third of which is a prose translation.
Macrobius. Text. Eyssenhardt, Leipzig, 1868, 2d ed. Teubner series.
Mæcenas. Text in Fragm. Poet. Rom.
Manilius. Text in Corp. Poet. Lat., part iii.
Translation. Creech, London, 1700. [Appended to Lucretius.]
Manlius. See Vopiscus.
Marcellinus. See Ammianus.
Marius Victorinus. Text in Gram. Lat., vol. vi, Orelli’s Cicero, vol. v, Halm’s Rhetores Minores, and Patrol. Lat., vol. viii.
Martial. Text. Gilbert, Leipzig, 1886, Teubner series.
Translation (prose). Edited by H. G. Bohn, London, 1897. [Contains also metrical translations from various sources.]
Martianus Capella. Text. Eyssenhardt, Leipzig, 1866, Teubner series.
Mela. Text. Frick, Leipzig, 1880, Teubner series.
Minucius Felix. Text. Baehrens, Leipzig, 1886, Teubner series.
Moretum. Text in Poet. Lat. Min., vol. ii.
Nævius. Text in Fragm. Poet. Rom., Scaen. Rom. Poesis Fragm., vols. i and ii.
Namatianus. See Rutilius.
Nemesianus. Text in Poet. Lat. Min., vol. iii.
Nepos. Text. Halm-Fleckeisen, Leipzig, 10th ed. 1889, Teubner series.
Translation. See Justin.
Nigidius Figulus. Text of fragments with Latin notes. Stroboda, Vienna, 1889.
Nonius Marcellus. Crit. text with comment. Müller, Leipzig, 1888, Teubner. 2 vols. Onions, Oxford, 1895.
Octavius. See Augustus.
Orosius. Zangemeister, Corp. Script. Eccl. Lat., vol. v, and Leipzig, 1889, Teubner series.
Ovid. Text in Corp. Poet. Lat., vol. i; Merkel-Ewald, Leipzig, 3d ed. begun 1888, Teubner series.
Annotated editions of separate works and of selections are numerous.
Translation (prose). Bohn’s Library. Metrical translations by Dryden and others are contained in Chalmers’ English Poets.
Pacuvius. Text in Scaen. Rom. Poesis Fragm., vol. i.
Palladius. Text in Scriptores Rei Rusticae, ed. Schneider, Jena, 1794-’97.
Persius. Text in Corp. Poet. Lat., vol. i; Bücheler. See Juvenal; with translation and commentary, Conington and Nettleship, Oxford, 1893.
Translation (prose). See Lucilius and Juvenal; (verse) Dryden, in his complete works and Chalmers’ English Poets.
Pervigilium Veneris. Text in Poet. Lat. Min., vol. iv.
Petronius. Text. Bücheler, Berlin, 3d ed. 1895, Weidmann. [With the satires of Varro and Seneca.]
Translation. (Trimalchio’s Dinner). H. T. Peck, New York, 1898, Harper’s.
Phædrus. Text in Corp. Poet. Lat., part iii; Riese, Leipzig, 1885, B. Tauchnitz.
Translation. Smart, London, 1831. [Also appended to Riley’s version of Terence and Phædrus in Bohn’s Library.]
Plautus. Text. Goetz and Schoell, Leipzig, 1892-’95, Teubner series, 7 parts.
Critical edition. Ritschl (2d ed. by Goetz, Loewe, and Schoell), Leipzig, 1878-’93, Teubner, 20 parts.
Many annotated editions of separate plays exist.
Translation (prose). Riley, London, Bohn’s Library; (verse) Thornton and Warner, London, 1767-’72.
Pliny the Elder. Text, Jan and Mayhoff, Leipzig, 2d ed. Teubner series. 6 vols.
Translation. With Notes, Bostock and Riley, London, Bell. 6 vols.
Pliny the Younger. Text. Keil, Leipzig, 1873, Teubner series.
Translation. Melmoth, revised by Bosanquet, London, 1877, Bell; Lewis, London, 1879, Trübner.
Plotius. See Sacerdos.
Pompeius Trogus. See Justin.
Pomponius. See Mela.
Pomponius (Lucius). Text in Fragm. Poet. Rom.
Priapea. Text in Poet. Lat. Min., vol. i, cf. vol. ii.
Priscian. Text in Gram. Lat., vols. ii and iii.
Probus (Valerius). Text in Gram. Lat., vol. iv.
Propertius. Text in Corp. Poet. Lat., vol. i; Mueller, Leipzig, 1880, Teubner series. See Catullus.
Ed. Crit. Postgate, London, 1880, Bell.
Translation (prose). Gantillon, with metrical versions of select elegies by Nott and Elton, London, Bohn’s Library.
Prudentius. Text. Patrol. Lat., vols. lix and lx.
Publilius Syrus. Text. Bickford-Smith, Cambridge, 1885; O. Friedrich, Berlin, 1880, Grieben [with notes].
Quintilian. Text. Institutiones Oratoriae, Meister, Leipzig, 1886-’87, Freytag.
Declamationes. Ritter, Leipzig, 1884, Teubner series.
Translation. Institutes of Oratory, J. S. Watson, London, Bohn’s Library. 2 vols.
Reposianus. Text in Poet. Lat. Min., vol. iv.
Rutilius Namatianus. Text in Poet. Lat. Min., vol. v.
Sacerdos Text in Gram. Lat., vol. vi.
Sallust. Text. Eussner, Leipzig, 1888, Teubner series. [School editions of the Catiline and the Jugurtha are numerous.]
Translation. Pollard, London, 1882, Macmillan.
Sammonicus Serenus. Text in Poet. Lat. Min., vol. iii.
Sedulius. Text in Patrol. Lat., vol. ix, and Corp. Script. Eccl. Lat., vol. x.
Seneca (the father). Text. Müller, Leipzig, 1888, Freytag; Kiessling, Leipzig, 1872, Teubner series.
Seneca (the son). Text. Philosophical works. Haase, Leipzig, 1852 sqq., Teubner series.
Tragedies, Leo, Berlin, 1879, Weidmann, 2 vols.
Translation. On Benefits, Minor Essays, and On Clemency. A. Stewart, London, Bohn’s Library. 2 vols. Two Tragedies (Medea and Daughters of Troy), E. I. Harris, Boston, 1899, Houghton & Mifflin.
Servius. Text with Latin notes. Thilo and Hagen, 1878-1902, Teubner. 4 vols.
Sidonius Apollinaris. Text in Patrol. Lat., vol. lviii; Lüjohann, Berlin, 1887 (Monum. German. Hist. Auct. Antiquiss., vol. viii).
Silius Italicus. Text. Bauer, Leipzig, 1890-’92, Teubner series. 2 vols.
Translation (verse). Tytler, Calcutta, 1828. 2 vols.
Sisenna. Text in Hist. Rom. Rell.
Solinus. Crit. Text. Mommsen, Berlin, 2d ed. 1895, Weidmann.
Statius. Text. Kohlmann, Leipzig, 1879-’84, Teubner series. 2 vols.
Translation (verse). Thebaid. Lewis, in Chalmers’ English Poets, vol. xx; Coleridge, in his collected poems; Achilleis, Sir Robert Howard, in his poems.
Sueius. Text in Fragm. Poet. Rom.
Suetonius. Text. Roth, Leipzig, 1875, Teubner series.
Translation. Thomson, revised by Forester, in Bohn’s Library.
Sulpicia. See Juvenal.
Symmachus. Text. Seeck, Berlin, 1883 (Monum. Germ. Hist. Auct. Antiquiss., vol. vi, 1).
Tacitus. Text. Nipperdey, Berlin, 1871-’76, Weidmann. 4vols.
[Annotated editions of separate works are many.]
Translation. Church and Brodribb, London, 1868-’77, Macmillan. 3 vols.
Terence. Text. Dziatzko, Leipzig, 1884, B. Tauchnitz.
Ed. Crit. Umpfenbach, Leipzig, 1871, Teubner.
Annotated ed. Wagner, London, 1869, Bell. [Annotated editions of separate plays are numerous.]
Translation (verse). Colman, London, 1810; (prose) Riley, in Bohn’s Library [with Phædrus].
Terentianus Maurus. Text in Gram. Lat., vol. vi.
Tertullian. Text. Patrol. Lat., vols. i and ii; Reifferscheid and Wissowa, Corp. Script. Eccl. Lat., vol. xx [only vol. i of Tertullian].
Tibullus. Text in Corp. Poet. Lat., vol. i; see also Catullus.
Translation. Cranstoun, Edinburgh and London, 1872, Blackwood. [English verse with notes.]
Trogus. See Justin.
Varius. Text in Fragm. Poet. Rom.
Varro Atacinus. Text in Fragm. Poet. Rom.
Varro (Marcus). Text. De Lingua Latina, Müller, Leipzig, 1833; Spengel, Berlin, 1885. De Re Rustica, Keil, Leipzig, 1889, Teubner series [commentary, 1891]. Fragments of Varro’s Menippean Satires are contained in Bücheler’s Petronius, of the lost grammatical works in Wilmanns, De Varronis Libris Grammaticis, Berlin, 1864, Weidmann, of the Antiquitates in Merckel’s edition of Ovid’s Fasti, Berlin, 1841, and poetical fragments in Fragm. Poet. Rom.
Vegetius Renatus. Text. Epitoma Rei Militaris, Lang, Leipzig, 2d ed. 1885, Teubner series.
Mulomedicina. In Schneider’s Scriptores Rei Rusticae, Jena, 1794-’97.
Velleius Paterculus. Text. Halm, Leipzig, 1876, Teubner series.
Translation. J. S. Watson, Bohn’s and Harper’s Libraries. [Sallust, Florus, and Velleius Paterculus, with notes.]
Virgil. Text. Ribbeck, Leipzig, 2d ed., Teubner series.
Crit. Text. Ribbeck, Leipzig, 2d ed., Teubner. 4 vols.
Annotated editions. Conington and Nettleship, London, 1865-’71, Bell, 3 vols.; Greenough, Boston, 1895, Ginn & Co. [School editions of parts of Virgil’s works are numerous.]
Translation (verse). Dryden, in his complete works.
Æneid. Conington, London, 1870, Longmans; J. D. Long, Boston, 1879, Lockwood, Brooks & Co.
Eclogues. C. S. Calverley, in his collected works, London, 1901, Bell.
Georgics. H. W. Preston, Boston, 1881, Osgood & Co.
Vitruvius. Crit. Text. Rose, Leipzig, 1899, Teubner series.
Translation. Gwilt, London, new ed. 1860, Weale.
Volcacius Sedigitus. Text in Fragm. Poet. Rom.
Vopiscus. Text in Script. Hist. Aug.