Note. In this idiom, the preposition is treated like an ending attached to the verb to make it transitive. In other words, laugh at, pass upon, etc., are treated as compound verbs, and the object of the preposition is, in effect, the object of the compound. In the passive, this object becomes the subject and the preposition (now lacking an object) remains attached to the verb. The passive construction is well established, but not always graceful.
252. The passive of some verbs of choosing, calling, naming, making, and thinking may be followed by a predicate nominative (§ 88, 2).
| Active Voice | Passive Voice |
|---|---|
| (PREDICATE OBJECTIVE) | (PREDICATE NOMINATIVE) |
| We elected John president. | John was elected president. |
| The Roman people called the chief friend. | The chief was called friend by the Roman people. |
| The herald proclaimed him emperor. | He was proclaimed emperor by the herald. |
Note. In the active voice, these verbs may take two objects referring to the same person or thing,—a direct object and a predicate objective (§ 104). In the passive, the direct object becomes the subject, and the predicate objective becomes a predicate nominative, agreeing with the subject (§ 88, 2).
253. When a verb takes both a direct and an indirect object, one of the two is often retained after the passive, the other becoming the subject. Thus,—
1. The indirect object is retained.
| Active Voice | Passive Voice |
|---|---|
| My aunt gave me this watch. | This watch was given me by my aunt. |
| We allowed them free choice. | Free choice was allowed them. |
| He allowed each speaker an hour. | An hour was allowed each speaker. |
| Congress granted me a pension. | A pension was granted me. |
Note. The preposition to is often inserted in the passive construction, especially with a noun; as,—“A small pension was granted to Dr. Johnson.”
2. The direct object is retained.
| Active Voice | Passive Voice |
|---|---|
| We allowed them their choice. | They were allowed their choice. |
| He allowed each speaker an hour. | Each speaker was allowed an hour. |
| They showed me the way. | I was shown the way. |
| Experience has taught me wisdom. | I have been taught wisdom by experience. |
The direct object after a passive verb is often called the retained object.
Note. This construction, though common, is avoided by many careful writers, except in a few well-established idioms. Its habitual use gives one’s style a heavy and awkward air. Instead of “He was given permission,” one may say “He received permission”; instead of “I was given this watch by my aunt,” either “It was my aunt who gave me this watch” or “This watch was a present from my aunt.”
254. The verb ask, which may take two direct objects,—one denoting the person, the other the thing,—sometimes retains its second object in the passive construction (§ 103).
255. In addition to the tense-forms already described, verbs have so-called progressive forms.
The progressive form of a tense represents the action of the verb as going on or continuing at the time referred to.
Both ate and was eating are in the past tense. But ate merely expresses a past action, whereas was eating describes this action as continuing or in progress in past time.
256. The progressive form is a verb-phrase made by prefixing to the present participle some form of the verb to be.
| Active Voice | Present Tense |
|---|---|
| SINGULAR | PLURAL |
| 1. I am striking. | 1. We are striking. |
| 2. Thou art striking. | 2. You are striking. |
| 3. He is striking. | 3. They are striking. |
So in the other tenses:
| Past | I was striking, etc. |
|---|---|
| Future | I shall be striking, etc. |
| Perfect | I have been striking, etc. |
| Pluperfect | I had been striking, etc. |
| Future perfect | I shall have been striking, etc. |
| Present | I am being struck, etc. |
|---|---|
| Past | I was being struck, etc. |
257. In the passive, the progressive forms are confined to the present and the past tense.
258. In subordinate clauses, the verb is (in its various forms) with its subject is often omitted in progressive phrases.
In parsing, the omitted words should be supplied.
259. For such progressive forms as is building for is being built, see § 352.
260. The present or the past of a verb in the active voice may be expressed with emphasis by means of a verb-phrase consisting of do or did and the infinitive without to.
Such a phrase is called the emphatic form of the present or past tense.
“I do see you” and “I did go” differ from “I see you” and “I went” merely in emphasis. Hence do see is called the emphatic form of the present tense of see, and did go the emphatic form of the past tense of go.
261. In questions and in negative statements the emphatic forms are used without the effect of emphasis.
Did you go? I did not go.
Note. Do often stands for some other verb which has just been used: as, “Jack swims better than I do,” “You looked as tired as she did.” This idiom comes from the omission of the infinitive in the verb-phrase:—“Jack swims better than I do [swim].”
In poetry and older English the verb-phrase with do or did in declarative sentences often carries no emphasis, but merely takes the place of the present or past: as,—“The serpent beguiled me, and I did eat.”
262. Mood is that property of verbs which shows the manner in which the action or state is expressed.
Mood (or mode) is derived from the Latin word modus, “manner.”
Compare the following sentences, noting the form of the verb in each:
In the first and second sentences, the form is is used to assert or question a fact; in the third, the form were expresses a condition or supposition that is contrary to fact; in the fourth, the form be expresses a command or request.
The difference in form seen in the verb in these sentences is called a difference of mood.
263. There are three moods,—the indicative, the imperative, and the subjunctive.
1. The indicative is the mood of simple assertion or interrogation, but it is used in other constructions also.
2. The imperative is the mood of command or request.
3. The subjunctive mood is used in certain special constructions of wish, condition, and the like.
Thus, in the examples in § 262, is is in the indicative, were in the subjunctive, and be in the imperative mood.
264. The ordinary forms of the indicative mood in the active and the passive voice and in all six tenses,—present, past, future, perfect (or present perfect), pluperfect (or past perfect), and future perfect,—may be seen in the table on pp. 108–110.
For the progressive form of the indicative, see § 256; for the emphatic form, see § 260.
265. The commonest uses of the indicative mood are in statements or questions as to matters of fact; but it may express almost any other form of thought. Thus,
Note. The indicative and the subjunctive were originally quite distinct in form, and each had its own set of constructions. But, as our language has grown simpler in its structure, the forms of these two moods have become almost identical, and the uses of the indicative have been greatly multiplied at the expense of the subjunctive. Indeed, there is scarcely any variety of thought expressed by the subjunctive or the imperative for which the indicative cannot also be employed. It is therefore impossible to frame any satisfactory definition of the indicative. Its functions are too varied to be included in one general statement. The indicative is often described as the mood which asserts thought as a fact, and the subjunctive as the mood which expresses thought as supposition (or as mere thought). But the indicative, as well as the subjunctive, may express supposition, condition, doubt, desire, concession, etc. Hence the definitions in § 263 are as exact as the facts of the language allow. All the efforts of grammarians to devise more “accurate” definitions break down when tested by actual usage.
266. The imperative is the mood of command or request.
The imperative has both voices, active and passive, but only one tense,—the present. It has both numbers, the singular and the plural, but only one person, the second. It has the same form for both the singular and the plural.
267. 1. The imperative active is the verb in its simplest form.
For examples, see § 266.
The imperative of the verb to be is be. Thus,—
2. The imperative passive is a verb-phrase consisting of be and a past participle.
268. The subject of an imperative is seldom expressed unless it is emphatic.
The subject, when expressed, may precede the imperative: as,—You sit here.
Note. In older English, the subject often followed the imperative: as,—Go thou, Go you, Hear ye. This use is now confined to the solemn style and to poetry.
269. The emphatic form of the imperative consists of the imperative do, followed by the infinitive without to.
The form with do is often used when the subject is expressed as,—Do you remain.
270. Prohibition (or negative command) is commonly expressed by means of the form with do.
In poetry and the solemn style prohibition is often expressed by the simple imperative with not.
271. Commands are sometimes expressed in the indicative by means of shall or will (§§ 239–240).
For such expressions as “Forward!” “Off with you!” and the like, see § 530.
For the imperative in conditions, see § 418.
272. The subjunctive mood is used in certain special constructions of wish, condition, and the like.
In older English, the subjunctive forms were common in a variety of uses, as they still are in poetry and the solemn style. In ordinary prose, however, subjunctive forms are rare, and in conversation they are hardly ever heard, except in the case of the copula be.
The subjunctive forms of be are the following:—
If is used in the paradigm because it is in clauses beginning with if that the subjunctive is commonest in modern English; but if is of course no part of the subjunctive inflection.
273. In other verbs, the subjunctive active has the same forms as the indicative, except in the second and third persons singular of the present and the perfect, which are like the first person:—
| Present | Perfect |
|---|---|
| 1. If I strike. | 1. If I have struck. |
| 2. If thou strike. | 2. If thou have struck. |
| 3. If he strike. | 3. If he have struck. |
In the passive subjunctive, the subjunctive forms of the copula (§ 272) are used as auxiliaries:—present, If I be struck; past, If I were struck; perfect, If I have been struck; pluperfect, If I had been struck. (See table, p. 304.)
274. Progressive verb-phrases in the subjunctive may be formed by means of the copula:—present, If I be striking; past, If I were striking. The present is rare; the past is common.
Subjunctive in Wishes and Exhortations
275. The subjunctive is often used in wishes or prayers.
In the first five examples, the wish is expressed in an independent sentence. In the last two, the construction is subordinate,—the that-clause being the object of an unexpressed “I wish” (§ 407).
276. The subjunctive be is often omitted when it may easily be supplied.
277. Wishes are often introduced by may or would.
May and would in such expressions were originally subjunctives; would stands for I would, that is, I should wish. Want in the first example is an infinitive without to (§ 311). For wishes expressed by the infinitive, see § 320.
278. Exhortations in the first person plural sometimes take the subjunctive in elevated or poetical style.
Exhortation is ordinarily expressed by let us followed by the infinitive without to.
Let is a verb in the imperative mood, us is its object, and the infinitive (join, have, camp) depends on let.
Subjunctives in Concessions, Conditions, etc.
279. The subjunctive is used after though, although, to express an admission or concession not as a fact but as a supposition.
When the concession is stated as an admitted fact, the indicative is regular.
280. After if and unless, expressing condition, the subjunctive may be used in a variety of ways.
In conditional clauses, the present subjunctive denotes either present or future time. It puts the supposed case doubtfully, but not necessarily as improbable. (See examples 1–3.)
The past subjunctive refers to present time. It implies that the supposed case is not now a fact. (See examples 4 and 5.)
The pluperfect (or past perfect) subjunctive refers to past time. It implies that the supposed case was not a fact. (See 6 and 7.)
For details of conditional sentences, see pp. 167–172.
281. Concession or condition may be expressed by the subjunctive without though or if, the verb preceding the subject, which is sometimes omitted.
I. Concession
II. Condition
Note. The subjunctive in these concessive and conditional uses is really the same as that in exhortations (§ 278). “Try [we] as we may” means literally, “Let us try as hard as we can,” and this has the force of “However hard we try” or “Although we try ever so hard.”
282. After as if (as though), the past subjunctive is used.
283. The subjunctive may express not what is or was, but what would be or would have been, the case.
This construction is old-fashioned. Modern English commonly uses should (or would) be, should (or would) have been, instead.
284. The subjunctive is occasionally used after that, lest, before, until, etc., in subordinate clauses referring to the future and commonly expressing purpose or expectation.
This construction is confined to poetry and the solemn or formal style. In ordinary language the indicative or a verb-phrase with may is used.
285. The past subjunctive had is common in had rather and similar phrases.
Note. Had in this construction is sometimes condemned as erroneous or inelegant; but the idiom is well-established.
Might better, would better, and would rather may be used instead of had better, etc.; but would better is improper in the first person.
286. The subjunctive forms are often replaced by verb-phrases containing the auxiliaries may, might, could, would, should.
1. In wishes (§ 277).
2. In concessions and conditions (§§ 279–280).
3. In sentences expressing not what is or was, but what would be or would have been, the case (§ 283).
4. In subordinate clauses introduced by that, lest, before, until, etc. (§ 284).
287. Several auxiliary verbs are used to form verb-phrases indicating ability, possibility, obligation, or necessity.
Such verb-phrases are called potential phrases, that is, “phrases of possibility.”
The auxiliary verbs used in potential phrases are:—may, can, must, might, could, would, and should. They are called modal auxiliaries and are followed by the infinitive without to.
Note. The fact that give, etc., in such phrases as can give, are infinitives may be seen by comparing “I can strike” with “I am able to strike,” “I may strike” with “I am permitted to strike,” “I must strike” with “I am obliged to strike,” and so on. In earlier periods of the language, when the infinitive had a special ending (-an or -en), the nature of the construction was unmistakable.
288. Potential phrases may be arranged in tables of conjugation, like that on pp. 108–110. They are often called, collectively, the potential mood.
| Present Tense | |
|---|---|
| SINGULAR | PLURAL |
| 1. I may strike.34 | 1. We may strike. |
| 2. Thou mayst strike. | 2. You may strike. |
| 3. He may strike. | 3. They may strike. |
| Past Tense | |
| 1. I might strike.35 | 1. We might strike. |
| 2. Thou mightst strike. | 2. You might strike. |
| 3. He might strike. | 3. They might strike. |
| Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense | |
| 1. I may have struck.36 | 1. We may have struck. |
| 2. Thou mayst have struck. | 2. You may have struck. |
| 3. He may have struck. | 3. They may have struck. |
| Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense | |
| 1. I might have struck.37 | 1. We might have struck. |
| 2. Thou mightst have struck. | 2. You might have struck. |
| 3. He might have struck. | 3. They might have struck. |
| Present Tense | |
|---|---|
| I may be struck, etc. | We may be struck, etc. |
| Past Tense | |
| I might be struck, etc. | We might be struck, etc. |
| Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense | |
| I may have been struck, etc. | We may have been struck, etc. |
| Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense | |
| I might have been struck, etc. | We might have been struck, etc. |
289. Can (past tense, could) regularly indicates that the subject is able to do something.
290. May (past tense, might) indicates (1) permission, (2) possibility or doubtful intention, (3) a wish.
291. In asking permission, the proper form is “May I?” not “Can I?” With negatives, however, can is more common than may, except in questions. Thus,—
292. Must expresses necessity or obligation.
Note. Must, though originally a past tense, is in modern English almost always used as a present. Past necessity may be expressed by had to with the infinitive: as,—“I had to wait for the train.”
293. Ought with the present infinitive, expresses a present duty or moral obligation; with the perfect infinitive, a past duty or obligation. Should is often used in the same sense.
Note. Ought is really an old past tense of the verb owe, but is now always a present. Its former meaning may be seen in Dame Quickly’s “You ought him a thousand pound” (Shakspere, 1 Henry IV, iii. 3. 152).
Had should never be prefixed to ought.
| Correct | Incorrect |
|---|---|
| You ought to stay at home. | You had ought to stay at home. |
| We oughtn’t to make so much noise. | We hadn’t ought to make so much noise. |
| John ought to begin, oughtn’t he? | John ought to begin, hadn’t he? |
294. Should and ought sometimes express what would certainly be expected in the case supposed.
295. Would in all three persons sometimes indicates habitual action in the past.
296. Should is the past tense of shall, and would is the past tense of will. Hence the rules for should and would are similar to those for shall and will (§§ 233–239). But there is much variation, especially in subordinate clauses.
297. Except in certain kinds of subordinate clauses, the distinction between should and would is practically the same as that between shall and will.
When the auxiliary verb expresses futurity without any idea of wishing, consenting, or the like, the forms are as follows:—
| SINGULAR | PLURAL |
|---|---|
| 1. I should fall. | 1. We should fall. |
| 2. Thou wouldst fall. | 2. You would fall. |
| 3. He would fall. | 3. They would fall. |
| SINGULAR | PLURAL |
|---|---|
| 1. Should I fall? | 1. Should we fall? |
| 2. Shouldst thou fall? | 2. Should you fall? |
| 3. Would he fall? | 3. Would they fall? |
298. Common errors are the use of I would for I should in assertions, and that of Would I? and Would you? for Should I? and Should you? in questions.
The correct forms are shown in the following sentences.
I. I should (we should) and I would (we would) in assertions:—
In the first six examples, I (or we) should is correct, because the auxiliary gives no suggestion of the speaker’s will (or volition). In the last six, on the contrary, the speaker’s willingness or desire is plainly expressed by the auxiliary, and I (or we) would is therefore used.