54. A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing.
55. Nouns are divided into two classes—proper nouns and common nouns.
1. A proper noun is the name of a particular person, place, or thing.
2. A common noun is a name which may be applied to any one of a class of persons, places, or things.
Proper nouns begin with a capital letter; common nouns usually begin with a small letter.
Note. Although a proper noun is the name of a particular person, place, or thing, that name may be given to more than one individual. More than one man is named James; but when we say James, we think of one particular person, whom we are calling by his own name. When we say man, on the contrary, we are not calling any single person by name: we are using a noun which applies, in common, to all the members of a large class of persons.
Any word, when mentioned merely as a word, is a noun. Thus,—
And is a conjunction.
56. A common noun becomes a proper noun when used as the particular name of a ship, a newspaper, an animal, etc.
57. A proper noun often consists of a group of words, some of which are perhaps ordinarily used as other parts of speech.
Note. These are (strictly speaking) noun-phrases (§ 41); but, since all are particular names, they may be regarded as proper nouns.
58. A proper noun becomes a common noun when used as a name that may be applied to any one of a class of objects.
59. Certain proper nouns have become common nouns when used in a special sense. These generally begin with a small letter.
60. A lifeless object, one of the lower animals, or any human quality or emotion is sometimes regarded as a person.
This usage is called personification, and the object, animal, or quality is said to be personified.
Each old poetic Mountain
Inspiration breathed around.—Gray.Who’ll toll the bell?
“I,” said the Bull,
“Because I can pull.”His name was Patience.—Spenser.
Smiles on past Misfortune’s brow
Soft Reflection’s hand can trace;
And o’er the cheek of Sorrow throw
A melancholy grace.—Gray.Love is and was my lord and king,
And in his presence I attend.—Tennyson.Time gently shakes his wings.—Dryden.
The name of anything personified is regarded as a proper noun and is usually written with a capital letter.
Note. The rule for capitals is not absolute. When the personification is kept up for only a sentence or two (as frequently in Shakspere), the noun often begins with a small letter.
61. An abstract noun is the name of a quality or general idea.
Many abstract nouns are derived from adjectives.
62. A collective noun is the name of a group, class, or multitude, and not of a single person, place, or thing.
The same noun may be abstract in one of its meanings, collective in another.
63. Abstract nouns are usually common, but become proper when the quality or idea is personified (§ 60).
Collective nouns may be either proper or common.
64. A noun consisting of two or more words united is called a compound noun.
As the examples show, the parts of a compound noun may be joined (with or without a hyphen) or written separately. In some words usage is fixed, in others it varies. The hyphen, however, is less used than formerly.
Note. The first part of a compound noun usually limits the second after the manner of an adjective. Indeed, many expressions may be regarded either (1) as compounds or (2) as phrases containing an adjective and a noun. Thus railway conductor may be taken as a compound noun, or as a noun (conductor) limited by an adjective (railway).
65. In studying the inflection of nouns and pronouns we have to consider gender, number, person, and case.
1. Gender is distinction according to sex.
2. Number is that property of substantives which shows whether they indicate one person or thing or more than one.
3. Person is that property of substantives which shows whether they designate (1) the speaker, (2) the person spoken to, or (3) the person or thing spoken of.
4. Substantives have inflections of case to indicate their grammatical relations to verbs, to prepositions, or to other substantives.
These four properties of substantives are included under inflection for convenience. In strictness, however, nouns are inflected for number and case only. Gender is shown in various ways,—usually by the meaning of the noun or by the use of some pronoun. Person is indicated by the sense, by the pronouns used, and by the form of the verb.
66. Gender is distinction according to sex.
Nouns and pronouns may be of the masculine, the feminine, or the neuter gender.
1. A noun or pronoun denoting a male being is of the masculine gender.
2. A noun or pronoun denoting a female being is of the feminine gender.
3. A noun or pronoun denoting a thing without animal life is of the neuter gender.
A noun or pronoun which is sometimes masculine and sometimes feminine is often said to be of common gender.
67. A pronoun must be in the same gender as the noun for which it stands or to which it refers.
Each of the following pronouns is limited to a single gender:
All other pronouns vary in gender.
68. A neuter noun may become masculine or feminine by personification (§ 60).
Thou who didst waken from his summer dreams
The blue Mediterranean.—Shelley.Stern daughter of the Voice of God!
O Duty!—Wordsworth.Nature from her seat
Sighing through all her works, gave signs of woe.—Milton.
69. In speaking of certain objects, such as a ship and the moon, it is customary to use she and her. In like manner, he is used in speaking of the sun and of most animals, without reference to sex, although it often designates an insect or other small creature, and even a very young child.
Who and which are both used in referring to the lower animals. Which is the commoner, but who is not infrequent, especially if the animal is thought of as an intelligent being.
Thus one would say, “The dog which is for sale is in that kennel,” even if one added, “He is a collie.” But which would never be used in such a sentence as, “I have a dog who loves children.”
70. The gender of masculine and of feminine nouns may be shown in various ways.
1. The male and the female of many kinds or classes of living beings are denoted by different words.
| Masculine | Feminine |
|---|---|
| father | mother |
| husband | wife |
| uncle | aunt |
| king | queen |
| monk | nun |
| wizard | witch |
| lord | lady |
| horse | mare |
| gander | goose |
| drake | duck |
| cock | hen |
| ram | ewe |
| bull | cow |
| hart | hind |
| buck | doe |
| fox | vixen10 |
2. Some masculine nouns become feminine by the addition of an ending.
| Masculine | Feminine |
|---|---|
| heir | heiress |
| baron | baroness |
| lion | lioness |
| prince | princess |
| emperor | empress |
| tiger | tigress |
| executor | executrix |
| administrator | administratrix |
| hero | heroine |
| Joseph | Josephine |
| sultan | sultana |
| Philip | Philippa |
Note. The feminine gender is often indicated by the ending ess. Frequently the corresponding masculine form ends in or or er: as,—actor, actress; governor, governess; waiter, waitress. The ending ess is not so common as formerly. Usage favors proprietor, author, editor, etc., even for the feminine (rather than the harsher forms proprietress, authoress, editress), whenever there is no special reason for emphasizing the difference of sex.
3. A few feminine words become masculine by the addition of an ending. Thus,—widow, widower; bride, bridegroom.
4. Gender is sometimes indicated by the ending man, woman, maid, boy, or girl.
5. A noun or a pronoun is sometimes prefixed to a noun to indicate gender.
6. The gender of a noun may be indicated by some accompanying part of speech, usually by a pronoun.
Note. The variations in form studied under 2 and 3 (above) are often regarded as inflections. In reality, however, the masculine and the feminine are different words. Thus, baroness is not an inflectional form of baron, but a distinct noun, made from baron by adding the ending ess, precisely as barony and baronage are made from baron by adding the endings y and age. The process is rather that of derivation or noun-formation than that of inflection.
71. Number is that property of substantives which shows whether they indicate one person, place, or thing or more than one.
There are two numbers,—the singular and the plural.
The singular number denotes but one person, place, or thing. The plural number denotes more than one person, place, or thing.
72. Most nouns form the plural number by adding s or es to the singular.
1. If the singular ends in s, x, z, ch, or sh, the plural ending is es.
2. Many nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant also take the ending es in the plural.
3. Nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel form their plural in s: as,—cameo, cameos; folio, folios.
4. The following nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant also form their plural in s:—
73. In some nouns the addition of the plural ending alters the spelling and even the sound of the singular form.
1. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change y to i and add es in the plural.
Most proper names ending in y, however, take the plural in s.
2. Some nouns ending in f or fe, change the f to v and add es or s.
74. A few nouns form their plural in en.
Note. Ancient or poetical plurals belonging to this class are: eyne (for eyen, from eye), kine (cows), shoon (shoes), hosen (hose).
75. A few nouns form their plural by a change of vowel.
Note. German, Mussulman, Ottoman, dragoman, firman, and talisman, which are not compounds of man, form their plurals regularly: as,—Germans, Mussulmans. Norman also forms its plural in s.
76. A few nouns have the same form in both singular and plural.
Note. This class was larger in older English than at present. It included, for example, year, which in Shakspere has two plurals:—“six thousand years,” “twelve year since.”
77. A few nouns have two plurals, but usually with some difference in meaning.
| Singular | Plural |
|---|---|
| brother | brothers (relatives) |
| brethren (members of the same society) | |
| horse | horses (animals) |
| horse (cavalry) | |
| foot | feet (parts of the body) |
| foot (infantry) | |
| sail | sails (on vessels) |
| sail (vessels in a fleet) | |
| head | heads (in usual sense) |
| head (of cattle) | |
| fish | fishes (individually) |
| fish (collectively) | |
| penny | pennies (single coins) |
| pence (collectively) | |
| cloth | cloths (pieces of cloth) |
| clothes (garments) | |
| die | dies (for stamping) |
| dice (for gaming) |
78. When compound nouns are made plural, the last part usually takes the plural form; less often the first part; rarely both parts.
79. Letters of the alphabet, figures, signs used in writing, and words regarded merely as words take ’s in the plural.
80. Foreign nouns in English sometimes retain their foreign plurals; but many have an English plural also.
Some of the commonest are included in the following list:12
| Singular | Plural |
|---|---|
| alumna (feminine) | alumnæ |
| alumnus (masculine) | alumni |
| amanuensis | amanuenses |
| analysis | analyses |
| animalculum | animalcula13 |
| antithesis | antitheses |
| appendix | appendices |
| appendixes | |
| axis | axes |
| bacillus | bacilli |
| bacterium | bacteria |
| bandit | banditti |
| bandits | |
| basis | bases |
| beau | beaux |
| beaus | |
| candelabrum | candelabra |
| cumulus | cumuli |
| cherub | cherubim |
| cherubs | |
| crisis | crises |
| curriculum | curricula |
| datum | data |
| ellipsis | ellipses |
| erratum | errata |
| formula | formulæ |
| formulas | |
| genius | genii |
| geniuses | |
| genus | genera |
| gymnasium | gymnasia |
| gymnasiums | |
| hippopotamus | hippopotami |
| hypothesis | hypotheses |
| larva | larvæ |
| memorandum | memoranda |
| memorandums | |
| nebula | nebulæ |
| oasis | oases |
| parenthesis | parentheses |
| phenomenon | phenomena |
| radius | radii |
| seraph | seraphim |
| seraphs | |
| species | species |
| stratum | strata |
| synopsis | synopses |
| tableau | tableaux |
| tempo | tempi |
| terminus | termini |
| thesis | theses |
| trousseau | trousseaux |
| vertebra | vertebræ |
The two plurals sometimes differ in meaning: as,—
81. When a proper name with the title Mr., Mrs., Miss, or Master, is put into the plural, the rules are as follows:—
1. The plural of Mr. is Messrs. (pronounced Messers14). The name remains in the singular. Thus,—
Mr. Jackson, plural Messrs. (or the Messrs.) Jackson.
2. Mrs. has no plural. The name itself takes the plural form. Thus,—
Mrs. Jackson, plural the Mrs. Jacksons.
3. In the case of Miss, sometimes the title is put into the plural, sometimes the name. Thus,—
Miss Jackson, plural the Misses Jackson or the Miss Jacksons.
The latter expression is somewhat informal. Accordingly, it would not be used in a formal invitation or reply, or in addressing a letter.
4. The plural of Master is Masters. The name remains in the singular. Thus,—
Master Jackson, plural the Masters Jackson.
Other titles usually remain in the singular, the name taking the plural form: as,—the two General Follansbys. But when two or more names follow, the title becomes plural: as,—Generals Rolfe and Johnson.
82. Some nouns, on account of their meaning, are seldom or never used in the plural.
Such are many names of qualities (as cheerfulness, mirth), of sciences (as chemistry15), of forces (as gravitation).
Many nouns, commonly used in the singular only, may take a plural in some special sense. Thus,—
| earth (the globe) | earths (kinds of soil) |
| ice (frozen water) | ices (food) |
| tin (a metal) | tins (tin dishes or cans) |
| nickel (a metal) | nickels (coins) |
83. Some nouns are used in the plural only.
84. A few nouns are plural in form, but singular in meaning.
Note. These nouns were formerly plural in sense as well as in form. News, for example, originally meant “new things.” Shakspere uses it both as a singular and as a plural. Thus,—“This news was brought to Richard” (King John, v. 3. 12); “But wherefore do I tell these news to thee?” (1 Henry IV, iii. 2. 121). In a few words modern usage varies. The following nouns are sometimes singular, sometimes plural: alms, amends, bellows, means, pains (in the sense of “effort”), tidings.
85. Person is that property of substantives which shows whether they denote (1) the speaker, (2) the person spoken to, or (3) the person spoken of.
A substantive is in the first person when it denotes the speaker, in the second person when it denotes the person spoken to, in the third person when it denotes the person or thing spoken of.
The examples show (1) that the person of a noun has nothing to do with its form, but is indicated by the sense or connection; (2) that certain pronouns denote person with precision. Thus, I is always of the first person; you of the second; and he of the third. These personal pronouns will be treated in Chapter III.
86. Substantives have inflections of case to indicate their grammatical relations to verbs, to prepositions, or to other substantives.
There are three cases,—the nominative, the possessive, and the objective.
The possessive case is often called the genitive.
The nominative and the objective case of a noun are always alike in form. In some pronouns, however, there is a difference (as,—I, me; he, him).
87. The inflection of a substantive is called its declension. To decline a noun is to give its case-forms in order, first in the singular number and then in the plural. Thus,—
| Singular | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | boy | horse | fly | chimney | calf | lass | man | deer |
| Possessive | boy’s | horse’s | fly’s | chimney’s | calf’s | lass’s | man’s | deer’s |
| Objective | boy | horse | fly | chimney | calf | lass | man | deer |
| Plural | ||||||||
| Nominative | boys | horses | flies | chimneys | calves | lasses | men | deer |
| Possessive | boys’ | horses’ | flies’ | chimneys’ | calves’ | lasses’ | men’s | deer’s |
| Objective | boys | horses | flies | chimneys | calves | lasses | men | deer |
88. The nominative case is used in the following constructions: (1) the subject, (2) the predicate nominative, (3) the vocative, (or nominative of direct address), (4) the exclamatory nominative, (5) appositive with a nominative, (6) the nominative absolute.
1. The subject of a verb is in the nominative case.
In the third example, face is the simple subject; the complete subject is the boy’s face. In the fourth, men is the simple subject; the complete subject is a thousand men. Both face and men are in the nominative case; face is in the singular number; men in the plural.
2. A substantive standing in the predicate, but describing or defining the subject, agrees with the subject in case and is called a predicate nominative.
A predicate nominative is also called a subject complement or an attribute.
The rule for the case of the predicate nominative is particularly important with respect to pronouns (§ 119).
| I am he. | Are you she? |
| It is I. | It was we who did it. |
The predicate nominative is commonest after the copula is (in its various forms). It will be further studied in connection with intransitive and passive verbs (§§ 214, 252).
3. A substantive used for the purpose of addressing a person directly, and not connected with any verb, is called a vocative.
A vocative is in the nominative case, and is often called a nominative by direct address or a vocative nominative.
Note. A vocative word is sometimes said to be independent by direct address, because it stands by itself, unconnected with any verb. That a vocative is really in the nominative case may be seen in the use of the pronoun thou in this construction: as,—I will arrest thee, thou traitor (see § 115).
4. A substantive used as an exclamation is called an exclamatory nominative (or nominative of exclamation).
Certain exclamatory nominatives are sometimes classed as interjections (§ 375).
5. A substantive added to another substantive to explain it and signifying the same person or thing, is called an appositive and is said to be in apposition.
An appositive is in the same case as the substantive which it limits.
Hence a substantive in apposition with a nominative is in the nominative case.
Note. Apposition means “attachment”; appositive means “attached noun or pronoun.” An appositive modifies the noun with which it is in apposition much as an adjective might do (compare “Balboa, a Spaniard” with “Spanish Balboa”). Hence it is classed as an adjective modifier.
89. The possessive case denotes ownership or possession.
Note. Most uses of the possessive come under the general head of possession in some sense. Special varieties of meaning are source (as in “hen’s eggs”) and authorship (as in “Wordsworth’s sonnets”).
A possessive noun or pronoun modifies the substantive to which it is attached as an adjective might do. Hence it is classed as an adjective modifier.
Forms of the Possessive Case
90. The possessive case of most nouns has, in the singular number, the ending ’s.
Plural nouns ending in s take no further ending for the possessive. In writing, however, an apostrophe is put after the s to indicate the possessive case.
Plural nouns not ending in s take ’s in the possessive.
Note. In older English the possessive of most nouns was written as well as pronounced with the ending -es or -is. Thus, in Chaucer, the possessive of child is childës or childis; that of king is kingës or kingis; that of John is Johnës or Johnis. The use of an apostrophe in the possessive is a comparatively modern device, due to a misunderstanding. Scholars at one time thought the s of the possessive a fragment of the pronoun his; that is, they took such a phrase as George’s book for a contraction of George his book. Hence they used the apostrophe before s to signify the supposed omission of part of the word his. Similarly, in the possessive plural, there was thought to be an omission of a final es; that is, such a phrase as the horses’ heads was thought to be a contraction of the horseses heads. Both these errors have long been exploded.
91. Nouns like sheep and deer, which have the same form in both the singular and the plural, usually take ’s in the possessive plural.
Thus, the deer’s tracks would be written, whether one deer or more were meant.
92. Possessive Singular of Nouns ending in s.
1. Monosyllabic nouns ending in s or an s-sound usually make their possessive singular by adding ’s.
Note. Most of these monosyllabic nouns in s are family names. The rule accords with the best usage; but it is not absolute, for usage varies. Hence forms like Charles’ and Wells’ cannot be condemned as positively wrong, though Charles’s and Wells’s are preferable. In speaking, the shorter form is often ambiguous, for there is no difference in sound between Dix’ and Dick’s, Mr. Hills’ and Mr. Hill’s, Dr. Childs’ and Dr. Child’s.
2. Nouns of two or more syllables ending in s or an s-sound, and not accented on the last syllable, may make their possessive singular by adding ’s, or may take no ending in the possessive.
In the latter case, an apostrophe is added in writing, but in sound there is no difference between the possessive and the nominative.
Most of the nouns in question are proper names. In speaking, one must often use the longer form to prevent ambiguity; for Williams’ and William’s, Roberts’ and Robert’s, Robbins’ and Robin’s, are indistinguishable in sound.
Note. Nouns of two or more syllables ending in s or an s-sound and accented on the last syllable, follow the rule for monosyllables. Thus,—Laplace’s mathematics (not Laplace’); Alphonse’s father (not Alphonse’).
When final s is silent (as in many French names), ’s must of course be added in the possessive. Thus,—Descartes’s philosophy (pronounced Daycárt’s).
Use of the Possessive Case
93.16 Possession may be denoted by a phrase with of as well as by the possessive case. The distinction between the two forms cannot be brought under rigid rules, but the following suggestions will be of use.
I. In older English and in poetry the possessive case of nouns is freely used, but in modern prose it is rare unless the possessor is a living being. A phrase with of is used instead.
Contrast the poetic use:—
Belgium’s capital had gathered then
Her beauty and her chivalry.—Byron.
Other prepositions are sometimes used: as,—“the explosion in New York” (NOT “New York’s explosion”), “the station at Plymouth.”
II. When the possessor is a living being, good usage varies.
1. If there is actual ownership or possession of some material thing, the possessive case is generally used in the singular: as,—“John’s hat” (not “the hat of John”). The possessive plural, however, is often replaced by a phrase with of, to avoid ambiguity or harshness: as,—“the jewels of the ladies” (rather than “the ladies’ jewels”)17, “the wings of the geese” (rather than “the geese’s wings”).
2. With nouns denoting a quality, an act, or the like, either the possessive or the of-phrase is proper: as,—“John’s generosity,” or “the generosity of John”; “John’s condition,” or “the condition of John”; “the guide’s efforts,” or “the efforts of the guide”; “Cæsar’s death,” or “the death of Cæsar.”
When there is any choice, it usually depends on euphony (that is, agreeable sound), and is therefore a question of style. Sometimes, however, there is a distinction in sense. “John’s fear,” for example, indicates that John is afraid; but “the fear of John” means the fear which John inspires in others.
III. The following phrases are established idioms with the possessive. In some of them, however, the possessive may be replaced by of and its object.
In the second group of phrases (“a moment’s pause,” etc.), the possessive denotes not ownership, but measure or extent.
IV. The possessive case of certain pronouns (my, our, your, his, her, its, their) is more freely used than that of nouns in expressions that do not denote actual ownership.
For the inflection of these pronouns, see § 115. For the use of whose, see § 152.
94. When a thing belongs to two or more joint owners, the sign of the possessive is added to the last name only.
95. In compound nouns the last part takes the possessive sign. So also when a phrase is used as a noun.
Other examples are the following:—
Note. Noun-phrases often contain two substantives, the second of which is in apposition with the first. In such phrases, of is generally preferable to the possessive. Thus, we may say either “Tom the blacksmith’s daughter” or “the daughter of Tom the blacksmith”; but “the son of Mr. Hill the carpenter” is both neater and clearer than “Mr. Hill the carpenter’s son.” The use of ’s is also avoided with a very long phrase like “the owner of the house on the other side of the street.”
An objective may stand in apposition with a possessive, the latter being equivalent to of with an object. Thus,—“I am not yet of Percy’s mind [= of the mind of Percy], the Hotspur of the North” (Shakspere).
96. The noun denoting the object possessed is often omitted when it may be readily understood, especially in the predicate.
This construction is common in such expressions as:—
In the first example, “a relative of John’s” means “a relative of (= from among) John’s relatives.” The second example shows an extension of this construction by analogy. See § 122.
97. The objective case, as its name implies, is the case of the object. Most of its uses are covered by the following rule:—
The object of a verb or preposition is in the objective case.
The object of a preposition has already been explained and defined (§§ 20–21).
98. The object of a verb may be (1) the direct object, (2) the predicate objective, (3) the indirect object, (4) the cognate object. Of these the direct object is the most important.
The objective is also used (5) adverbially (§ 109), (6) in apposition with another objective (§ 110), and (7) as the subject of an infinitive (§ 111).
99. Some verbs may be followed by a substantive denoting that which receives the action or is produced by it. These are called transitive verbs. All other verbs are called intransitive.
In Nos. 1–4, the verb is followed by a noun denoting the receiver of the action. Thus, in the first sentence, the dog receives the blow; in the second, the target receives the action of hitting. In Nos. 5–7, the verb is followed by a noun denoting the product of the action. For example, the corn is produced by the action expressed by the verb raises.
In each example, the noun that follows the verb completes the sense of the verb. “That man struck ——.” “Struck whom?” “He struck the dog.” Until dog is added the sense of the verb struck is incomplete.
100. A substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb is called its direct object, and is said to be in the objective case.
Thus, in the examples above, dog is the direct object of the transitive verb struck; target is the direct object of hit,—and so on. Each of these nouns is therefore in the objective case.
The direct object is often called the object complement, or the object of the verb.
101. Intransitive verbs have no object.
Compare these sentences with those in § 99. We observe that the verbs (unlike those in § 99) admit no object, since their meaning is complete without the addition of any noun to denote the receiver or product of the action. “The man struck——” prompts the inquiry, “Struck whom?” But no such question is suggested by “The lion roared”; for “Roared what?” would be an absurdity.
102. The predicate nominative (§ 88, 2) must not be confused with the direct object. They resemble each other in two particulars: (1) both stand in the predicate, and (2) both complete the meaning of the verb. But they differ utterly in their relation to the subject of the sentence. For—
The predicate nominative describes or defines the subject. Hence both substantives denote the same person or thing.
Charles [SUBJECT] {is | was | became | was elected} captain [PREDICATE NOMINATIVE].
The direct object neither describes nor defines the subject. On the contrary, it designates that upon which the subject acts. Hence the two substantives regularly18 denote different persons or things.
Charles [SUBJECT] {struck James [OBJECT]. | threw a stone [OBJECT]. | built a boat [OBJECT].}
Both the direct object and the predicate nominative are classed as complements, because they are used to complete the sense of the predicate verb (§ 483).
103. A verb of asking sometimes takes two direct objects, one denoting the person and the other the thing.
104. Verbs of choosing, calling, naming, making, and thinking may take two objects referring to the same person or thing.
The first of these is the direct object, and the second, which completes the sense of the predicate, is called a predicate objective.
The predicate objective is often called the complementary object or the objective attribute. It is classed as a complement.
An adjective may serve as predicate objective.
105. Some verbs of giving, telling, refusing, and the like, may take two objects, a direct object and an indirect object.
The indirect object denotes the person or thing toward whom or toward which is directed the action expressed by the rest of the predicate.
| Direct Object only | Direct Object and Indirect Object |
|---|---|
| Dick sold his bicycle. | Dick sold John his bicycle. |
| I gave permission. | I gave this man permission. |
| He paid a dollar. | He paid the gardener a dollar. |
| She taught Latin. | She taught my children Latin. |
Most of the verbs that admit an indirect object are included in the following list:—
Pronouns are commoner as indirect objects than nouns.
It is always possible to insert the preposition to before the indirect object without changing the sense.
Since the indirect object is equivalent to an adverbial phrase, it is classed as a modifier of the verb.
Thus, in “Dick sold John his bicycle,” John is an adverbial modifier of the predicate verb sold.
The indirect object is sometimes used without a direct object expressed. Thus,—
He paid the hatter.
Here hatter may be recognized as an indirect object by inserting to before it and adding a direct object (“his bill,” “his money,” or the like).
106. The objective case sometimes expresses the person for whom anything is done.
This construction may be called the objective of service.
Note. The objective of service is often included under the head of the indirect object. But the two constructions differ widely in sense, and should be carefully distinguished. To do an act to a person is not the same thing as to do an act for a person. Contrast “John paid the money to me,” with “John paid the money for me”; “Dick sold a bicycle to me,” with “Dick sold a bicycle for me.”
107. The objective case is used after like, unlike, near, and next, which are really adjectives or adverbs, though in this construction they are often regarded as prepositions.
The use of the objective after these words is a peculiar idiom similar to the indirect object (§ 105). The nature of the construction may be seen (as in the indirect object) by inserting to or unto (“She sang like unto a bird”).
Note. The indirect object, the objective of service, and the objective after like, unlike, and near are all survivals of old dative constructions. Besides the case of the direct object (often called accusative), English once had a case (called the dative) which meant to or for [somebody or something]. The dative case is easily distinguished in Greek, Latin, and German, but in English it has long been merged in form with the ordinary objective.
108. A verb that is regularly intransitive sometimes takes as object a noun whose meaning closely resembles its own.
A noun in this construction is called the cognate object of the verb and is in the objective case.
Note. Cognate means “kindred” or “related.” The cognate object repeats the idea of the verb, often with some modification, and may be classed as an adverbial modifier. Its difference from the direct object may be seen by contrasting “The blacksmith struck the anvil” with “The blacksmith struck a mighty blow” (cf. “struck mightily”). For the pronoun it as cognate object, see § 120.
109. A noun, or a phrase consisting of a noun and its modifiers, may be used adverbially. Such a noun is called an adverbial objective.
A group of words consisting of an adverbial object with its modifier or modifiers forms an adverbial phrase (§ 41).
110. A substantive in apposition with an objective is itself in the objective case.
This rule follows from the general principle that an appositive is in the same case as the substantive to which it is attached (§ 88, 5).
111. The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case.
This construction will be treated in connection with the uses of the infinitive (§ 325).
112. To parse a word is to describe its grammatical form and to give its construction.
In parsing a noun, we mention the class to which it belongs, give its gender, number, person, and case, and tell why it is in that case. Thus,—
1. Frank shot a wolf.
Frank is a proper noun of the masculine gender, in the singular number and third person. It is in the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb shot.
Wolf is a common noun of the masculine or feminine [or common] gender, in the singular number and third person. It is in the objective case, because it is the object [or direct object] of the transitive verb shot.
2. Jane, come here.
Jane is a proper noun of the feminine gender, in the singular number and second person. It is in the nominative case, being used as a vocative (or in direct address).
3. The rope is fifteen feet long.
Feet is a common noun of the neuter gender, in the plural number and third person. It is in the objective case, being used as an adverbial modifier of the adjective long.
4. Edgar’s boat is a sloop.
Edgar’s is a proper noun of the masculine gender, in the singular number and third person. It is in the possessive case, modifying the noun boat.