Czarnisee and Tulewosee.—These two lakes are in the vicinity of the Aryssee, and each contained a lake-dwelling similar to that in the latter, both in structure and in the character of its relics. On the station in the Czarnisee were found a blue glass bead; a partially perforated stone axe, 3⅛ inches long, with the core still remaining; and two socketed iron lance-heads.
The Kownatken Pfahlbau was also a Packwerk formed of round and split stems. It extended along the margin of the lake for about seventy paces, and had a breadth of twelve at the east end, which became reduced to seven or eight at the west end. Some of the pottery from this station, of which fragments of twelve vessels were found, was ornamented with finger marks as well as string marks (Schnurornament). Among the relics are pointers of bone, one supposed to be a skate (Fig. 99, No. 14); some round sling-stones; a well-formed stone hatchet (No. 12); worked flint flakes (No. 13); and sharpening stones. Among the bones were those of the stag, roe, pig, horse, ox, and portions of reindeer horn.
The lacustrine dwelling in the Kocksee was discovered on the lowering of the lake in the autumn of 1882. When its level had sunk 4½ feet, the structure appeared above the water. It was 34 yards long by 15 broad, and stretched lengthways along the shore, with which it was connected by a bridge. The woodwork appeared to have been cut by metal tools, although none of them have hitherto been discovered in the débris. The relics consisted of fragments of pottery and a few stone and bone objects.
In the neighbouring Probchensee a lake-dwelling, in all respects similar to that in the Kocksee, has recently come to light.
At Bonslack transverse beams were observed, tied to the uprights by means of birch thongs (Birkengeflecht). From this station, some pottery, perforated like a sieve, and a mallet of wood, are recorded.
In the Szontagsee there was also a lake-dwelling of the same class as those above described, the exact details of which have not yet been published. From it there are several interesting objects in the Prussia Museum at Königsberg, among which I have noted bone pointers and spatulæ, a well-formed needle of bone with the eye at one end, and a large bronze button with a raised eye.
As to the other localities in East Prussia where indications of lake-dwellings have been observed, the discoveries hitherto made on their sites are too indefinite to merit a detailed notice here, and I shall content myself with the references already given as to where such observations have been recorded.
Arraschsee (Livland).—In 1876 Count Sievers announced the discovery of a lake-dwelling in the Arraschsee, which was subsequently visited by the indefatigable Professor Virchow. This was a small circular island, covered with birch trees and bushes, which, on examination, turned out to have been an artificially-constructed island, like our own crannogs. Like them, also, it was surrounded by piles, and its interior was constructed of layers of wooden beams laid transversely over each other. Its structure was ascertained by digging two large square holes in different parts of the island, and in one nine layers of wood were counted, and in the other six. The chief relics collected were a bronze ring-pin, seven inches long; a bronze fibula (eine lettische Fibel); portion of a mould; a few clay beads; a pointed bone implement; bits of string and rolls of birch-bark; also fragments of grey and black pottery, with rude knobs and finger-marks, and without handles. From marks on the woodwork it was inferred that iron tools were used. The osseous remains belonged to the horse, ox, pig, and beaver. (B. 292.)
Professor Virchow, as early as 1869, published an excellent thesis on the lake-dwellings of North Germany (B. 165), in which he maintained that all of them, with perhaps one or two exceptions, belonged to a much more recent period than those of Switzerland and South Germany. This opinion he founded on the following considerations:—
(1) Though many objects of stone and bronze were found on the former, yet in almost every case they were associated with others of a more recent type, including iron implements, etc.
(2) The food refuse contained most commonly the bones of the ordinary domestic animals, those of wild animals, such as reindeer, wild boar, stag, wild goat, and beaver, being but rarely met with.
(3) Many of the lake-dwellings were synchronous with the Burgwälle, a fact which was conclusively proved by their possessing the characteristic pottery of the latter, as was notably the case in the Persanzig lake-dwelling. Moreover, Virchow showed that some of the Burgwälle had direct communication with adjacent lake-dwellings, as in the Dabersee, Soldinersee, and Kloppsee.
Referring to this subject at a later date (1877), at the eighth Congress of the German Anthropological Society (B. 306), Virchow, while reviewing the further discoveries of lake-dwellings in North Germany, maintained the general correctness of his previous conclusions. These northern Pfahlbauten, according to him, were due to the immigration into the country of the Slavish people, and bear the same relation to the Burgwälle that the pile-dwellings in Italy do to the terremare. "Ich denke," says he, "wir werden uns entschliessen müssen, ganz im Gegensatze zu den süddeutschschweizerischen Pfahlbauten, die Einführung der nördlichen Pfahlbauten an die Einwanderung des Slavo-lettischen Stammes anzuknüpfen."
Virchow's opinion is not, however, universally accepted, as many of the local archæologists maintain that there are several lake-dwellings which have yielded relics that can only be explained on the supposition that they were founded during the earlier prehistoric ages. The chief examples relied on in support of their contention are those at Wismar, Spandau, Czeszewo, Objezierze, and Aryssee.
After carefully examining the relics from all these stations I must admit that much could be written on both sides of this controversy. Notwithstanding the number of typical objects of the Stone Age from Wismar and Gägelow, Dr. Lisch records that along with them were portions of querns. Now, querns are never found among the remains of the Swiss lake-dwellings, nor am I aware of their existence in any prehistoric remains in northern or western Europe prior to Roman times. The station at Spandau, if it be considered a true Pfahlbau, was undoubtedly of the Bronze Age. Czeszewo and Objezierze have yielded a considerable quantity of Stone Age relics, with scarcely any of the succeeding ages. Only one bronze object is said to have been found on the former, and from the latter there is in the Museum of Posen a bronze torque (Fig. 98, No. 9), which was found at a little distance from the lake-dwelling. As regards the Aryssee and its neighbouring lakes of Czarni and Tulewo, with their respective lake-dwellings, all of which are of the Packwerk type, Professor Heydeck relies largely on the presence of pottery with string and finger ornamentation, as a proof of their antiquity, in addition to the ordinary stone celts, horn clubs, etc.; but yet along with them were found iron lance-heads and a blue glass bead (Czarnisee). Similarly in the Packwerk in the Kownatkensee, polished stone celts, pottery with finger marks and Schnurornament, and portion of a reindeer horn, were found associated with a bone skate, and the osseous remains of the domestic animals, as the horse, pig, ox, etc. In attempting, therefore, to estimate the chronological range of these lake-dwellings from an examination of their contents, which (being unnoticed in the early annals of the country) is the only available means, the mixed character of these relics presents a considerable difficulty—a difficulty which, as we shall afterwards see, is equally applicable to the Scottish and Irish crannogs. But, whatever doubts may be cast on their antiquity and early origin, there can be none as to the comparatively late occupancy of many of them. A bone skate and a comb made of square bits bound together by cross pieces, and showing that the teeth were cut by a saw after the pieces were put together, precisely as may be seen in the combs from the Scottish crannogs and the terp-mounds of Holland, were found by Virchow in the Dabersee Pfahlbau. Iron hatchets (Dabersee, Persanzigsee, and Alt Friesack), horseshoes, and other iron implements (Soldinersee), pottery of Slavish type (Bonin, Kloppsee, Persanzig, etc.), leather (Bonin), and even armour and bricks of the thirteenth century (Lübtowsee), leave no doubt as to their almost mediæval character.
Reindeer horns were found at Butzow, Soldinersee, and Kownatkensee; but these objects do not necessarily indicate great antiquity, as this animal, though not referred to in the early annals of North Germany, is stated to have been an inhabitant of the country in the time of Cæsar.
The undoubted contemporaneity of many of these lake-dwellings with the Burgwälle opens up a field of research of considerable importance to European archæology; but their exact chronological relationship still remains an obscure problem, owing chiefly to the mystery which surrounds the latter.
Burgwälle or Rundwälle is the general name given to the remains of a remarkable class of prehistoric constructions found scattered over the larger portion of middle and north-western Europe, embracing the southern parts of Russia around the shores of the Black Sea, Roumania, Bulgaria, Transylvania, Hungary, Austria, Bohemia, Poland, North Germany, France, Great Britain, and the southern parts of Scandinavia. Their foundations now only remain and these show that the structures were generally circular or oval, but sometimes square and semicircular. They may be divided into three kinds, according to the materials of which their foundations are constructed, viz.:—earth, stones or stones in vitrified condition (Erd-, Stein-und Schlackenwälle). Their sizes vary from 20 to 100 paces in diameter, and their height from 10 to 30 feet, and they contained one, two, or sometimes three walls. Those made of earth were circular and generally situated in swampy land, or in countries where stones were not readily accessible. The Steinwälle were in hilly districts and varied in form according to the nature of the ground. Sometimes they assumed the irregular outline of a promontory or peninsula in a lake, at other times, especially when placed on an overhanging cliff, they were mere semicircles. Those of vitrified materials are of special interest to Scottish archæologists owing to the number of vitrified forts in Scotland. They are not very numerous on the Continent, Saxony and Bohemia containing the largest number. In the former country eight are known, viz.:—Schafberg by Löbau, Rothstein by Sohland, Stromberg by Weissenberg, Landeskrone by Görlitz, Brandwall by Blumberg, Koschütz near Dresden, Burgberg by Lichtenberg, and Vorberg by Kirchberg. According to Jelinek, Bohemia is rich in Schlackenwälle, those best known being near Katovic, Bukovec, Litoradic, Hradiste von Hostem, Hradiste bei Strakonic, Hradec bei Domanic Burgberg, Vladar, etc. ("Schutz-und Wehrbauten." p. 102). Instances also occur in Silesia, Thuringian Forest, Rhine district, Brittany, and Normandy.
The Burgwälle, like their analogues in the British Isles, have not yet been systematically investigated. From the character of the relics found in those that have been explored in North Germany they are divided into Vorslavisch, Slavisch and Spätslavisch, a distinction which has been suggested by the unique character of Slavish pottery. These Slavish dishes are always without handles, but of well-burnt pottery, and when ornamented the ornamentation is in wavy lines running parallel to the rim forming the characteristic Wellenlinie.
Many of these remains have, of course, now entirely disappeared in the interests of agriculture, but their number still remaining is very great. In Eastern Germany Dr. R. Behla describes and tabulates no fewer than 1,100. They are more numerous in the fertile districts. In Oberlausitz, in one district measuring 9 miles long by 3 to 16 broad, they number 100, and in the neighbourhood of Bautzen within a one mile circle 20 can be counted.[59]
It is probable that the material used in the upper structures of the Burgwälle was wood, which, of course, has now completely decayed, except in some special conditions, as in swampy ground where wooden piles were used in their foundations. This is another point of contact between these buildings and the lake-dwellings which has not been overlooked by archæologists. Virchow describes the Burgwall of Potzlow, and that of Zahsow near Cottbus, as constructed over former Pfahlbauten;[60] and, indeed, the town of Cottbus seems to have been altogether built over piles, as, wherever diggings have been made, piles are met with, and in this way a finely ornamented quern was found.[61] Wooden substructures, in the form of a platform or Packwerkbau, have also been observed and recorded in many places, as at Schlieben, Gross Topola (Posen), the Labenzsee, Westpreussen.[62] Moreover, those in boggy places were approached by means of wooden gangways, the remains of which have been frequently met with in the form of a double row of piles.[63]
Notwithstanding the striking and singular appearance the Swiss lake-dwellings must have presented to foreigners and strangers, it is a remarkable fact that Roman writers are entirely silent about them. Nor can this silence be accounted for on the supposition that the lake-dwellings had entirely come to an end prior to Roman times, as several of them have furnished antiquities whose Roman origin cannot be mistaken. Some archæologists think they recognise in the representation of a Dacian village on the Column of Trajan a true pile-village (B. 164); but this is doubtful, and, even if true, it is but a very meagre evidence of the custom, and leaves the problem of the lake-dwellings as mysterious as ever. Such reticence on the part of classical writers does not, however, extend to the class of ancient remains I am now about to describe.
Pliny very distinctly states that the Chauci (Frisians and other races along the coast of the German Ocean) were in the habit of constructing artificial mounds, on which they built their houses so as to be beyond the influence of the waves and tides. The following passage from his "Natural History"[64] will be read with interest in relation to the recent discoveries that have been made in the localities referred to.
"I have myself personally witnessed the condition of the Chauci, both the Greater and the Lesser, situate in the regions of the far north. In these climates a vast tract of land, invaded twice each day and night by the overflowing waves of the ocean, opens a question that is eternally proposed to us by Nature, whether these regions are to be looked upon as belonging to the land, or whether as forming a portion of the sea?
"Here a wretched race is found, inhabiting either the more elevated spots of land, or else eminences artificially constructed, and of a height to which they know by experience that the highest tides will never reach. Here they pitch their cabins; and when the waves cover the surrounding country far and wide, like so many mariners on board ship are they; when, again, the tide recedes, their condition is that of so many shipwrecked men, and around their cottages they pursue the fishes as they make their escape with the receding tide. It is not their lot, like the adjoining nations, to keep any flocks for sustenance by their milk, nor even to maintain a warfare with wild beasts, every shrub, even, being banished afar. With the sedge and the rushes of the marsh they make cords, and with these they weave the nets employed in the capture of the fish; they fashion the mud, too, with their hands, and drying it by the help of the winds more than of the sun, cook their food by its aid, and so warm their entrails, frozen as they are by the northern blasts; their only drink, too, is rainwater, which they collect in holes dug at the entrance of their abodes; and yet these nations, if this very day they were vanquished by the Roman people, would exclaim against being reduced to slavery! Be it so, then—Fortune is most kind to many, just when she means to punish them."
Notwithstanding the preciseness of Pliny's description and the fact that for several centuries, since the great sea-dykes were erected, the scattered remains of these mounds have been accessible on dry land, they have only quite recently attracted the attention of archæologists. I consider their investigation important, not only for the large amount of industrial remains they contain, but for supplying a missing link in the evidence of continuity in the European habit of constructing pile-dwellings.
Before the construction of the great sea-dykes in Holland nearly the whole of West Friesland would have been in that hybrid condition described by Pliny in which it was difficult to say whether it belonged to sea or land (dubiumque terræ sit, an pars maris). At the present time, however, these lands are richly cultivated and look as if they were a dead level. It is only on close inspection that the monotony is relieved by certain elevations of considerable extent called Terpen, whose summits rise to about the level of the larger dykes. These mounds are situated at more or less regular intervals, so that if the tides by any calamity had free scope, they would appear as so many islands scattered over the country. It is on such elevations that modern churches and villages are generally built, and, till they accidentally attracted the attention of agriculturists, nobody seemed to think anything about their origin. A few years ago it was discovered that their interior was composed of a rich ammoniacal deposit which agriculturists found valuable as a fertilising agent when spread over their fields. The excavation of this substance for manuring purposes now forms an important industry, and any landed proprietor who happens to own a workable terp—i.e. one free of buildings—is on the way to realise a small fortune. When a terp is found suitable for being excavated they generally commence by digging a canal close up to its base, sufficiently large to admit of the passage of good-sized boats. The boats are then easily loaded with the stuff and so it is conveyed to all parts of the country. As the workings advance the canal is also advanced, so that the boats are always in close proximity to the diggings. In the course of these operations, bones and horns of various animals, pottery, and other relics of human industry, were occasionally turned up.
By degrees these repeated discoveries attracted the attention of antiquaries, and Dr. Pleyte, of Leyden, is now publishing a large illustrated work on the antiquities of Holland (B. 301), in which a conspicuous place is given to the terp-mounds and their contents. It is, however, to some of the office-bearers of the Museum of the Friesch Genootschap at Leeuwarden, more especially Mr. Corbelijn Battaerd, its conservator, that I am indebted for much of my information on the subject. In this museum are stored up most of the objects hitherto found in the terp-mounds, and the collection, already unique of its kind, is daily and rapidly increasing, as orders have been issued in regard to many of them that no relics are to be disposed of without being, in the first place, submitted to the authorities of the museum.
Like most countries, the early traditions of Holland have been forgotten or ignored, and in its annals little mention is made of the terpen. In explanation of the origin and early use of the word, Dr. Pleyte quotes from Ocko van Scharl a passage to the effect that one of the ancient kings of Friesland, named Adgillus, who reigned towards the end of the sixth century, had caused, on account of the ravages of an inundation which took place four years prior to his accession, a large number of elevated places to be formed, so as to give shelter to man and beast in the event of a recurrence of this danger. These mounds were then called Terpen.
Mr. Dirks, president of the Friesch Genootschap, as early as 1871 characterised these mounds as analogous to the terramara beds of North Italy ("ce sont des terramares historiques");[65] but it remained to Professor Pigorini of Rome to show that they were identical as regards internal structure. This he did in 1881 (B. 372c), after a visit to one at Aalzum which was then being excavated, when he showed that there was a circumscribing dyke, and, although no actual piles were then visible, he was informed by the proprietors that such wooden structures had been occasionally met with. Prior to his visit, it appears that no special attention was directed to these structural remains. From all he could learn, however, on this point, and especially from a consideration of the stratified arrangements of the débris, Pigorini concluded that the deposits were due to pile-dwellings, and had accumulated under precisely similar conditions to the terremare, in regard to which he is such a distinguished authority.
The terp at Aalzum is still being systematically excavated, and, though only as yet partially cleared off, its results, from an archæological point of view, are now second to none of the kind in Holland. Moreover, the excavations are conducted on an extensive scale, and the locality is readily accessible. I can, therefore, conceive of no better means of conveying to you some knowledge of the nature and structural phenomena of these remarkable deposits, than by detailing the facts which came under my own cognisance during a visit I made this summer to the same spot under the guidance of my excellent friend, Mr. Battaerd.
The terp lies about a mile to the north of the town of Dokkum, some twelve miles from Leeuwarden, and four or five from the seashore. In approaching the locality from Dokkum there was little to attract special notice beyond the usual Dutch scenery—canals, rich meadows, herds of splendid cattle, and here and there some well-cultivated cornfields. In front of us a slight elevation could be discerned, crowned by a small church in the midst of a clump of trees, the surroundings of which were neatly hedged meadows and cornfields. As we advanced towards this church, and within a few hundred yards of it, we entered on a sloping road, as if raised on a dyke, but on each side the land was perfectly flat and bearing a splendid crop: here a field of magnificent beans, and there an equally promising one of wheat. These fields, said Mr. Battaerd, were formerly part of the terp-mound from which the fertilising stuff has already been removed, but this road was left undisturbed, so that we are now actually walking on a portion of its surface. By-and-by we came in sight of heaps of clayey stuff, the tops of which sparkled with reflected light, and in their midst were to be seen the masts and rigging of three boats. Those whitish clay-like heaps, said Mr. Battaerd, formed the surface soil, which, being of no commercial value, had to be wheeled off before the saleable deposits could be got at. At last the actual workings were reached, and we found ourselves in front of a perpendicular section some 15 or 18 feet high, from which men and women were busily engaged in loading the boats. Uppermost in my thoughts was the paramount question of the existence of upright piles, which, it will be remembered, Pigorini had not actually seen. Great was my delight when, at the very first glance, my eye detected an undoubted pile of oak just in face of the cutting. Close by it I soon found another and as we moved along numbers were observed, some soft and yielding, scarcely offering any resistance to the spade; and others of oak very hard in the centre, but more decayed and ragged-like than those I have been in the habit of seeing among the lake-dwelling remains. Those seen in this section differed considerably in size; and I observed that some penetrated deeper than others. At a little distance lay a heap of oak beams which had recently been removed from the trenches—one of which I measured and found it to be four yards in length, and from six to eight inches thick. Upon inquiry, I ascertained that these beams lay horizontally, and about half way down, in the stratified stuff.
Those who, like Professor Pigorini, are acquainted with the structural features of the terremare of Northern Italy, will not be surprised at the comparative rarity with which piles are met with in the terpen, because of the rapidity with which timbers, when buried in dry earth, decay and disappear altogether, leaving in many instances no traces whatever behind them. This fact was strikingly shown by Chierici, who produced positive evidence of the former existence of piles in the upper strata of some of the terremare, by showing that the holes left by the piles, after the woody fibre had completely disappeared by decomposition, had become subsequently filled up by dust and infiltrated material, which ultimately became hardened, and so retained the actual form of the original piles. (See page 248.) In short, natural casts of the original piles were accidentally formed, which thus disclosed a knowledge of their former existence, which otherwise might never have been suspected. To the soundness of this deduction I have myself unconsciously contributed by an observation which I made some years ago, while digging at the crannog of Lochspouts, and having recorded it I may perhaps be allowed here to repeat my words. "One day I was greatly puzzled by finding what was evidently a portion of a birch tree, from 6 to 9 inches in diameter, quite flat, and with scarcely any wood left inside the thick bark. In no instance previously had I seen the evidence of pressure on logs of this size; but after carefully considering the point it was ascertained that such effects occurred only in the upper portion of the mound, and above the log pavement, where the wood had been exposed to atmospheric influences, so that when the woody fibres rotted away the flattening of the bark was easily produced. All the logs found buried in water or mud retained their original dimensions and showed no trace of having yielded to superincumbent pressure."[66]
The absence of piles and wooden structures from many of these mounds is, therefore, no proof that they have not formerly existed; and, indeed, it is difficult to account for the horizontality and regularity of the beds on any other hypothesis.
While I wandered about amidst the various sections presented by the progressive stages of the excavations, wondering at the distinctness of the strata, or picking up stray objects from the débris, such as mussel shells, bits of bone, fragments of pottery, etc., which were to be found here and there sticking in the face of the cuttings, my friend, Mr. Battaerd, was deeply occupied in examining a heap of bones, which lay weathering in a sunny corner. Having joined him in his osteological study, I found that the chief point of attraction was the head of a urus (Bos primigenius) of great size, and with splendid horn cores—the finest example, according to Mr. Battaerd, that had yet found its way to the museum.
The land close to the brink of the section, and extending over a considerable portion of the mound, was occupied by growing corn, and hence its dimensions can only be approximately stated. The proprietors, Messrs. W. and J. Bierma, obligingly accompanied us, and one of them assured me it could not be less than from three to four hundred yards in diameter. Its greatest height above the water in the canal was 18 feet, but of course the level of the canal water is considerably lower than that of high tide in the open sea. The commercially valuable stuff commenced some 3 or 4 feet below the surface, and continued without interruption to within a few feet of the canal water. It was in this intermediate portion that the relics were found: but their exact position, especially that of the smaller objects, was seldom determined, as it was generally after the stuff had become partially broken up during transport that they were found.
The stuff in situ was distinctly stratified, forming layers of various thicknesses, from a finger breadth up to 3 or 4 inches, or sometimes more, which in some instances could be continuously traced for long distances. Sometimes they shelved out altogether, and others commenced. Here, a bed of fibrinous matter, in which quantities of the partly decomposed fibres of flax could be readily recognisable; there, a thickish deposit of a brownish glutinous stuff like peat. Charcoal and ashes permeated the whole, and showed themselves sometimes as distinct layers. Clay and sand were also largely mixed with these deposits, and occasionally assumed the form of distinct and separate beds.
Having so far satisfied ourselves as to the structural arrangements of the mound, and the disposition of its contents, we walked up to the church, which is but a short distance from the workings. This small edifice is surrounded by a burying ground, and among the gravestones are some ancient-looking ones. Mr. Battaerd informed me that it dates as far back as the eleventh century.
It is calculated that there are altogether about 150 of these mounds in West Friesland alone, and that of these about the half have been more or less examined, some being now entirely cleared away. They are also to be found in the province of Gröningen and some other parts of Holland. Dr. Dirks states that the town of Leeuwarden is built over two terp-mounds;[67] and Dr. Pleyte informed me that he has reason to believe that the town of Leyden also reposes on similar deposits.
Relics (Fig. 100).—The relics of human industry collected from the terpen are very varied and numerous. Of these the following notes and illustrations, taken chiefly from the large assortment in the Leeuwarden Museum, will serve to convey some general idea of the social economy which prevailed among the occupiers of these singular settlements, as well as of the period in which they flourished.
Prehistoric.—The prehistoric remains, commonly so-called, such as cutting implements of stone, are only feebly represented, but occasionally they do turn up, in which respect the terpen resemble the Scottish and Irish crannogs.
Clay Objects.—Perforated loom-weights, both conical and flat; spindle-whorls in great numbers, and often ornamented with finger marks or grooved lines (Nos. 2 and 3). Some flat and triangularly-shaped objects of clay (No. 22) are perforated with three holes, one at each angle, which are sometimes perpendicular and sometimes parallel to the surface; in bulk and composition they correspond with the loom-weights.
Pottery.—Pottery is, as a rule, coarse but abundant, and represents vessels of various shapes and sizes, generally with ears, but a few with handles (Nos. 20 and 23). Samian ware is represented by many fragments of bowls and dishes. A few vases, apparently home-made, have some traces of coloured patches; and there are lids with raised handles and ornamented with hollowed dots.
Bone and Horn.—Bone and horn implements are very abundant, consisting of combs (Nos. 1 and 16 to 19) of varied forms, and constructed of plates riveted together with iron rivets, and ornamented with consecutive circles, lines, dots, and curvilinear figures; among them are also a few combs with very long teeth (No. 30).[68] There are also pins (Nos. 26 and 28), needles (No. 29), buttons (No. 25), dice (No. 21), finger rings (No. 12), knife handles, pointers, etc. (Nos. 10, 11, 13 and 27). Many so-called skates made from the long bone of the horse's leg. Two or three short bones (foot of the ox) are covered with concentric circles, apparently for ornamentation. A curious bone object (No. 7) is supposed to have been used in making twine or ropes.
Glass.—Beads, blue, green and variegated; also glass slag.
Metal Objects.—A few bronze dishes (No. 5), one a tripod with projecting handle (No. 15). Figurines of men and animals; the hand of a Roman statue, apparently a female and about full size; Roman fibulæ; some three or four double spirals; a small pair of shears (No. 8), and a few bracelets with clasping-hooks. All these are of bronze. Among objects of iron are shears, hammers, bridle-bits (Fig. 101), slag, etc. A leaden bar or pig weighing 17 kilogrammes and marked with three crosses, so, "XXX", was found at Achlum.
Coins.—Anglo-Saxon coins very abundant: at Hallum 180 sceattæ were found in a jar; Byzantine money in gold; Roman imperial money, generally in silver, but sometimes in gold; Frankish coins. The proprietors of Aalzum found a few silver coins in this terp with the following inscription: "+ HLOTHARIVS. IMP. DORE STATVS MON (eta)," which defines their date to be between 840 and 855 A.D.[69]
Wooden Objects.—Small spades precisely similar to those used by children while amusing themselves by digging the sand on the seashore. Numbers of large casks the staves of which are kept together by three iron hoops. In diameter these casks are not more than an ordinary herring barrel, but in length they are from six to seven feet, and about one-third from the top there is a small square hole 4 or 5 inches in diameter. The ends of the staves at the top rim of some are much decayed, but the rest is perfectly sound, and for this reason they are supposed to have stood in water with only the upper parts exposed. They have been found in almost all the terpen examined, usually at regular distances, and deeply buried. One, 6 feet high, was found resting inside a vat 3 feet deep, and its highest point was over two yards below the surface of the mound. Canoes and small paddles may also be mentioned as occasional relics.
Nondescript Objects.—Cock spurs; egg-shells of the domestic fowl and goose, some of which, singularly enough, were, when found, still unbroken; shells of various kinds of sea-urchins, star-fishes, and mussels; amber beads, also this material in the unworked form; amorphous vivianite; large quantities of the débris of flax; one curious object is a flute made of the shank bone of a small animal; one small fictile dish has four feet, and a few others are in the form of three cups attached. At Aalzum, on the occasion of my visit, among the articles purchased by Mr. Battaerd were a mitten and some sort of head-dress like a felt wide-awake. The mitten had only one stall, for the thumb.
In the terp called Beetgum there was found an urn, like those from the dolmens of the Drenthe, containing some burnt bones. Human bones are sometimes found, but they are supposed to have belonged to secondary burials. At Aalzum a grave was found containing a body and along with it was a fibula of the Merovingian period, with a flat back containing a beautiful mosaic pattern of variegated glass and amber.
Fauna.—Osseous remains representing the following animals:—Horse, ox (several varieties—Bos taurus, primgenius, longifrons, brevicornis), cat, dog, sheep, wild boar, deer, roe, and fallow deer. Among the skulls of these animals (of which there are many) are one or two of the four-horned sheep. It may be of interest to note that the osseous remains of this animal were among those identified by Sir W. R. Wilde as coming from the crannog of Lagore (page 351).
In 1879 Dr. Tergast, of Emden, published a short account of the prehistoric antiquities of East Friesland,[70] in which he takes notice of the existence of certain mounds, in the low-lying regions, called "Warfen," which he believes to be the remains of very ancient settlements constructed for the protection of their inhabitants against floods and the fluctuations of the surrounding waters. The author does not give many details about these mounds. It would appear, however, that they are to be met with in considerable numbers, as he suggests that it would be of the highest interest to archæological science to have a map constructed showing their local distribution. Nor do they appear to have been subjected to much practical investigation, as only three objects from them are illustrated in Dr. Tergasts book. These are a bone implement (so-called skate or cloth-polisher), a necklace of glass and amber beads, and an iron arrow-point. He also figures a comb (six inches long) similar to that from the terpen (Fig. 100, No. 30), but without specifying the locality where it was found. All these are precisely similar to objects found in the terp-mounds of Holland. Every indication, therefore, points to the conclusion that the Terpen and Warfen are quite analogous to each other and belong to the same period of time.
In 1883, Dr. Hartmann, of Marne (B. 397), gave a more detailed account of similar dwellings in the Holstein fen district, near the embouchure of the river Elbe. These, in the form of low mounds, are met with, according to him, in all the marshes along this part of the North Sea coast. In the Dithmarschen, both north and south, they are very numerous, and the larger ones, like the terp-mounds of Holland, are now generally occupied by one or more modern buildings. In extent they vary from 1¼ to 15 acres, and in height from 13 to 23 feet above ordinary mean tides. On several occasions in recent times, in the course of excavating the foundations of new buildings, the digging of wells, etc., various relics, such as fragments of pottery, clay weights, iron implements, bits of manipulated staghorns, broken bones, etc., were turned out, which, however, suggested nothing more than passing comments. But their real nature is now clearly pourtrayed by the facts recorded by Dr. Hartmann, the chief of which were ascertained from excavations conducted by himself in the Fahrstedter Wurth situated some three miles to the north of the Elbe. This Wurth, some years ago, became the property of a brick manufacturer, of the name of Huesmann, who was in the habit, from time to time, of utilising its contents, partly for filling up old clay-pits and partly for manuring purposes. Such was the condition of the Fahrstedter Wurth when Dr. Hartmann's attention was directed to it in August, 1881. On his first visit, while poking about the open trenches, he picked up, at a depth of four feet from the surface, a perforated clay weight, four inches in diameter, and two and a half inches thick. After this he continued his visits to the locality regularly, and, in a short time, collected a number of relics, besides determining many interesting points in regard to the structure of the mound. The greatest depth reached by the haphazard excavations of Mr. Huesmann was nine and a half feet. Along the exposed section down to this point Dr. Hartmann distinguished the following layers:
| 1. | Ordinary soil (Ackererde) | about 2 feet. |
| 2. | Greenish sandy earth (hellgrüne sandige Erde), supposed to be due to sea | |
| action, from the fact of its containing many | ||
| of the spicules or needles of sponges | 1 " | |
| 3. | A layer of reddish clay (rother Estrich) | ½ to 1 " |
| 4. | Remains of wooden structures (Packwerk) | 2 to 4 " |
| 5. | Earth mixed with clay (helle Kleierde) | 1½ " |
This Packwerk is described as made up of decomposed branches, from the size of a finger to, occasionally, the thickness of an arm, arranged horizontally, but sometimes perpendicularly. Its lower portion was composed of large quantities of the twigs of birch and oak, the fibres of several marsh plants, broken bones, and other organic débris. In the underlying clay he noticed some holes, which he concluded to have been due to small piles, the wood of which had disappeared by decomposition. Scattered through this Packwerk were found, besides charcoal and ashes, a varied assortment of the relics of human industry, of which the following may be noted:—Fragments of pottery, (grey and black), among which were some with perforations round the rims; sharpening-stones; a perforated clay weight; twelve portions of quern stones, made of basalt, and having a thickness of one and a half to two and a half inches—from a fragment, the entire diameter of one was ascertained to be 17 inches; several iron knives, a socketed lance-head, and some nails, together with lumps of both iron and glass slag. A wooden handle, some worked objects of bone with marks of rivets, bits of birch-bark, etc. A black mass of asphalt, supposed to be a product of birch-bark, had embedded in it the shell of a hazel-nut. From this it was inferred that the mass was originally in a fluid condition.
Among the osseous remains the following animals were identified by Dr. Pfeffer, of the Natural History Museum at Hamburg, and Dr. Rautenburg:—dog, ox, pig, sheep, stag, horse, bittern (?), and sturgeon (recognised by its scales).
In the clay below the Packwerk (Kleierde) were found the stumps of eight piles, five to six feet apart, which Dr. Hartmann concluded had originally passed upwards through the fascine work, but now only the portions embedded in the clay remained, the rest having disappeared by decomposition. Of these piles (four oak, three birch, and one ash), some were round and some rectangular, and nearly all more or less pointed at the lower extremity. The exceptions were blunt and rested on some fragments of granite stones. One of the piles, which measured six inches broad, and two and three-quarter inches thick, contained four round holes, in one of which a portion of a spar still remained.
Having satisfied himself as to the condition of this portion of the mound already exposed, Dr. Hartmann got permission from the proprietor to sink a shaft into the undisturbed portion underneath. The superficial area of this shaft was 12 feet long and 9 broad, and it was excavated until the sea-sand was reached, at a depth of 11½ feet—i.e. about 21 feet from the surface of the mound.
Continuing now our inspection of this section (the upper portion of which I have already detailed) the following layers were successively passed through:—
| 6. | Clay earth continued | 1½ ft. |
| 7. | Packwerk (No. 2) | 1 " |
| 8. | Blackish clayey stuff (dunkle Kleierde) | 1 " |
| 9. | Light clay (containing the stumps of a second series of piles, four | |
| in number, and from three to five and a half inches thick) | 1 " | |
| 10. | Packwerk (No. 3) | 3 " |
| 11. | Whitish clay, mixed with twigs, branches, reeds, etc. | 2 " |
| 12. | A layer of cowdung (Grüngelblicher fester Kuhdünger) | 2 " |
| 13. | Sea sand (Meeressand) |
The two Packwerke here encountered are stated to be similar to the first, and the relics are also much of the same character. The under portion of both is described as being made up of twigs of oak, birch, and hazel, very much birch-bark, worked bits of wood, wooden handles of tools, burnt faggots, débris of marsh plants (Schilf, Binsen, und Samen von Polygonum), small bundles of bast and other fibres of fine roots, shells of hazel-nuts, fragments of pottery (six pounds), lumps of iron slag (five pounds), broken bones (sixteen pounds), charcoal, a piece of redstone, and the shells of some edible molluscs (Helix fruticum and Strigella, and Cardium edule).
Among the relics to be noted are a spindle-whorl, an iron buckle, and a bit of leather.
Of special interest is a third series of piles, which he describes as terminating in the sea-sand underneath all. These piles were five in number, four oak and one birch, 2 to 5½ inches in thickness, and 18 to 33 inches in length. They were placed in a zig-zag fashion about 1½ foot apart, and traced through the layer of "Kuhdünger" to the "Packwerk," where they became so rotten as to be no longer recognised. One of them had also a hole, which still retained portion of a projecting spar.
Our investigator made observations, but of a much more limited character, on nine other Wurthen, and in all of them he found the "Packwerk" to be a special feature in their structure.
Such is an epitome of the facts on which Dr. Hartmann bases his opinion that not only the Wurthen, but also the neighbouring Warfen and Terpen, were constructed like the fascine islands of prehistoric Switzerland, and the Scottish and Irish crannogs. The idea of pile-buildings can scarcely be entertained by him, and he stoutly combats Pigorini's opinions in regard to the Terpen of West Friesland.
The Fahrstedter Wurth, according to Hartmann, consisted of an original mound some seven feet high, to which on two subsequent occasions additions were made. The initiatory process of its construction was to form a basis of Kuhdünger two feet in thickness. Over this clay and rubbish were placed, to the extent of other two feet; and then came the fascine structures, which raised the mound other three feet. To keep the mass together, piles were driven here and there down to the sandy bottom. But the inhabitants soon found that this was too low to shelter them from the waves and floods, so they constructed an addition to their mound, which raised its surface to ten feet. But this was not enough, and so a third addition was made, which added six feet more to the mound. At this height its surface would be about twenty feet above the medium sea level (Normal Null), and at this height Dr. Hartmann concludes that cottages would be quite secure, as the highest tides on record—viz. 4th February, 1825, reached only 12 feet 4 inches above the medium sea level, a result which would leave a considerable margin for the Fahrstedter Wurth. Of course, the tides never reach it now, as it is protected by the sea-dykes, the first of which was constructed in the middle of the twelfth century.
Very little reflection shows the inherent improbability of Dr. Hartmann's theory. Where could the primitive builders get such a quantity of "Kuhdünger" to start with? If the "Packwerk" was constructed as a solid mass, how could its under portions be so prolific of such varied relics, and other odds and ends of human occupancy? Moreover, the disproportion between the original and final height of the mound is incompatible with the supposition that the successive increases were merely additions entailed by unforeseen circumstances, such as an unusual storm. The three platforms with their corresponding series of upright piles, the stratified assortment of the structural materials, and the position of the relics and débris of its inhabitants scattered throughout the entire mound, are, in my opinion, inexplicable on any other hypothesis than that we have here the remains of pile-dwellings, successively erected one above the other, precisely similar to the terremare already described. The more probable modus operandi was to construct in the first place a circumscribing dyke of mud, varying in size according to the number of the tribe or family, behind which the cottages were built on platforms supported on piles. When the under spaces became filled up with the accumulated débris of men and cattle, and all the other odds and ends of continued occupancy, the process was repeated again and again, until the whole enclosed area, in the course of some centuries, became a flattish mound or island within the limits of the tidal shore.
Public attention was first directed to Irish crannogs by Sir W. Wilde, in the year 1839. It appears that early in this year Dr. Petrie's curiosity was roused by the frequency of the visits of a local dealer offering for sale objects of more or less archæological value, which, he stated, were found in a peat bog at Dunshaughlin, in the county of Meath. The articles exhibited were of a miscellaneous character, and their assortment in such a place seemed so strange that Dr. Petrie determined to visit the locality. Accordingly he and Surgeon Wilde (afterwards Sir W. R. Wilde) started for West Meath in search of the mysterious find, and were conducted to the peat-bog of Lagore, near the village of Dunshaughlin. Here, within the boundaries of a drained lake, they found an artificial mound entirely overgrown with peat, then partially exposed by turf-cutters. On making inquiries as to the antecedents of this mound they were informed that it had been well known to bone-collectors for upwards of ten years, and that already 150 cart-loads of bones had been dug out and forwarded to Scotland for manure. Altogether the find was considered of great importance, and it was arranged between the two antiquaries that Petrie should write a description of the antiquities, while Wilde was to confine himself to an analysis of the animal remains.
According to Mr. W. F. Wakeman,[71] it appears that Dr. Petrie was a little jealous of Surgeon Wilde's enthusiasm for archæology, and accordingly wished to limit the scope of his investigations. Wilde's paper, entitled "On the Animal Remains and Antiquities recently found at Dunshaughlin," was read at a meeting of the Irish Academy on the 27th April, 1840, and it is singular, and perhaps confirmatory of Wakeman's suggestion, that, with the exception of two extracts bearing on the situation and structure of the mound, it is reported in the Proceedings only in abstract. I here quote these extracts as the most authoritative description of this remarkable lake-dwelling now extant:—
"About a mile to the east of the village of Dunshaughlin, on the townland of Lagore, and near the margin of a 'cutaway' black bog, is a circular mound, slightly raised above the surrounding plain, its highest central part being about eight feet above the margin, and the circumference of the mound measuring 520 feet. A small stream passes through the circle; and the whole bog in which it is situated occupies a slight concavity of about a mile and a half in circumference, bounded by raised tillage and pasture lands. Within the memory of some of the old inhabitants of the neighbourhood, this bog was covered with water during the greater part of the year, and it is so invariably during winter up to the present period. A large pond is still in existence in one of the fields adjoining the mound. A few years ago some labourers, while clearing the stream-way, discovered several bones protruding from its sides; and in May, 1839, the quantity of bones found in the drain was so great, and their value so well known, that a further examination was made, when it was discovered that the greater part of the mound was composed of the remains of animals, placed there in the following manner:—
"The circumference of the circle was formed by upright posts of black oak, measuring from 6 to 8 feet in height; these were mortised into beams of a similar material, laid flat upon the marl and sand beneath the bog, and nearly 16 feet below the present surface. The upright posts were held together by connecting cross-beams, and fastened by large iron nails; parts of a second upper tier of posts were likewise found, resting on the lower ones. The space thus enclosed was divided into separate compartments, by septa or divisions that intersected one another in different directions; these were also formed of oaken beams in a state of great preservation, but joined together with greater accuracy than the former, and in some cases having their sides grooved or rabbited to admit large panels driven down between them. The interiors of the chambers so formed were filled with bones and black moory earth, and the heap of bones was raised up in some places within a foot of the surface. It was generally found that the remains of each species of animal were placed in separate divisions, with but little intermixture with any other; and the antiquities, etc., were found along with them, without any order or regularity, but for the most part near the bottom." (B. 4, p. 420.)
From the abstract of Wilde's paper I find that among the osseous remains the following animals were represented:—several varieties of oxen, the pig (a smaller variety than is now bred in Ireland), the horse, the ass, the common and fallow deer, the goat, one skull of the four-horned sheep, a large species of the greyhound tribe, probably the Irish wolf-dog, and the fox. A few bones of birds, the shells of limpets and buccinums, and a large quantity of the broken shells of hazel-nuts were also noted. Nearly in the centre of the heap, and within 2 feet of the surface, were found two human skeletons lying at length, and without any surrounding wood or stone coffin. Owing to the prejudices of the peasants these bones had to be re-interred. The report then goes on to say:—
"The antiquities found in this place may be divided into the warlike, the culinary, and the ornamental. They consisted of iron swords of different lengths, with straight edges and angular points, and bearing a resemblance to the ancient Roman swords. Very many knives were found, of different shapes and sizes, with iron spear, javelin, and dagger blades, and part of the boss or central ornament of a shield; but no brazen weapons of any description. Two querns, or ancient corn-mills, were found on the marl, at the bottom of the enclosure; sharpening-stones, iron chains, an iron axe, a brazen pot, and three small brass bowls of most elegant shape and workmanship; several articles precisely resembling miniature frying-pans, of about three inches in diameter (perhaps incense-burners); circular discs of turned bone, wood, and slate, like those supposed to have been used at the end of the distaff; small shears, like the modern sheep-shears; brazen, bone, and iron pins, from 4 to 6 inches in length, the former of great beauty of construction; brooches, and parts of buckles, containing pieces of enamel and mosaic work; bracelets; wooden (yew-tree) combs, toothpicks, etwees, and other articles belonging to the toilet. Several of these articles show an extraordinary state of perfection of the arts at the period of their construction.