Lw ＞ lgw ＞ lg: caluit ＞ calc, ✱toluĭstī ＞ tolguist, valuĭssem ＞ valguẹs, vŏluĕrunt (§ 16, 2) ＞ vǫlgron.

Nw, ngw, nkw ＞ ngw ＞ ng: tĕnuit ＞ tẹnc, ✱venuĭsset ＞ venguẹs; sanguem ＞ sanc; cīnque (= quinque) ＞ cinc.

Pw ＞ upw ＞ up ＞ ub: sapuĭsset ＞ saubẹs, recĭpuit ＞ recẹup.

Rw ＞ rgw ＞ rg: mĕruit ＞ męrc.

Sw seems to have been reduced early to s in consuetūdĭnem ✱costūmen ＞ costüm (costüma). Cōnsŭo apparently became ✱cōsio, whence an infinitive ✱cōsĕre or ✱cosīre (Pr. cǫzer, cosir).

Tw ＞ dw ＞ gw ＞ g: pŏtuit ＞ pǫc.

5. Groups Ending in Y.

73. This class contains: 1st, combinations of consonant + y ＜ e̯ or i̯, cf. § 40, (2); 2d, consonant + g´ ＞ y (§ 55, G), the g´ having been in some cases always contiguous to the preceding consonant, in others originally separated from it by a vowel; 3d, consonant + g ＞ y, the g representing an original c or g between the last two vowels of a proparoxytone, cf. § 65, G, (3). It does not include dy and gy, which early became y: see § 65, Y. See § 63, (1). The groups will be considered in alphabetical order:—

Bry ＞ bry in ebriācum ＞ ebriac (iure is probably French).

βy was early reduced to y in habeo habeam etc. and dēbeo dēbeam etc., partly, no doubt, through the proclitic use of these words, partly under the influence of audio ＞ ✱auyo audiam ＞ ✱auya and video ＞ ✱veyo vĭdeam ＞ ✱veya; this y, like any other medial y (§ 65, Y), became džy̆ or remained y: ai (for some reason there seems to have been no form ✱ach), aia; dẹi dẹch, dẹia. Aside from these words, βy ＞ udž and uy apparently in the north; elsewhere uy, by, vy—uy prevailing in the west, by and vy in the south and east. When the y became final, it changed to i, which, after a consonant, was syllabic. Ex.: abbrĕviat ＞ abręuia, ✱aggrĕviat ＞ agrẹuia, allĕviat ＞ alęuia, avĭŏ́lum ＞ aviǫl aiǫl, cavĕa ＞ gabia cauia, labia ＞ lavia-s, ✱leviarius ＞ leugięrs, ✱rabiam (= rabiem) ＞ rabia rauia,[67] ✱rabiāre ＞ rabiar, rabiōsus ＞ rabiọs rauiọs, rŭbeum ＞ rọg rọi,[68] ✱sabium ＞ savi sabi, atavia ＞ tavia, vidŭvium ＞ vezọig bedọi.[68] In purely learned words, Latin bi, vi, etc., are kept: abiurament, fluvial. Brĕvio ＞ bręy: cf. § 65, β, 3.

Cc´y: see C´y.

Cly ＞ l´: coclearium ＞ cuilhięr.

Cty ＞ is: factiōnem ＞ faissọ, lectiōnem ＞ leissọ, suspectiōnem ＞ sospeissọ. In purely learned words we find the spellings cti, cci, which doubtless indicate ktsy or ksy: electio, accio. Cf. Ssy.

C´y, cc´y, kwy ＞ ts; this ts, when it remained medial, was reduced, before and during the literary period, to s: bracchia ＞ brassa, bracchium ＞ bratz bras (§ 64), faciam ＞ faza fassa, faciem ＞ fatz fas, glaciem ＞ glatz glas[69], laqueāre ＞ lassar, laqueum ＞ latz las, ✱pĕcia ＞ pęssa, placeam ＞ plassa. Learned words have zi and ci, doubtless pronounced at first dzi, tsi, later zi, si (cf. A. Horning, Zs., XXIV, 545; XXV, 736): iuzizi iudici, edifici, Grecia. Cf. Pty.

D-g ＞ dž: jūdĭco ＞ iütge, mĕdĭcum ＞ męge, ✱sĕdĭcum ＞ sęie[70].

Dy: see § 55, Y and § 65, Y.

Gdy: see § 80, Gd.

Gy: see § 55, Y and § 65, Y.

Kwy: see Cy.

Lc´y ＞ lts ＞ uts ＞ us: calceāre ＞ caussar. Cf. Lty. See § 74, (2).

Lg´ apparently became ldz ＞ udz ＞ uz in ✱fŭlgĕrem (= fŭlgur) ＞ fọuzer.

Ll-g´ ＞ l´ in cŏllĭgit ＞ cuęlh. Cf. Ly.

Lly: see Ly.

Lny ＞ n´: balneum ＞ banh.

Lty ＞ lts >uts ＞ us: ✱altiāre ＞ auçar aussar. Cf. Lc´y. See § 74, (2).

Lvy ＞ lby ＞ uby in salvia ＞ saubia (Gascon).

Ly, lly ＞ l´: consĭlium ＞ cossẹlh, fīlium ＞ filh, fīlia ＞ filha, nūllī + vowel ＞ nülh. Learned words have li: familiarmens. Lili liri lire ＜ līlium are doubtless learned; lis is French.

Mby ＞ mby, mdž, and ndž; mdž being the usual form in the literary language: cambiāre ＞ camiar caniar cambiar.

Mmy ＞ my, mdž, and ndž: commeātus ＞ comiatz coniatz.

Mny ＞ n´ in Limousin and in the extreme east and southwest, elsewhere ndž: somniāre ＞ sonhar soniar. Somni, beside suenh songe, is learned.

Mply ＞ mply in ampliāre ＞ ampliar, probably learned.

My ＞ my and n´: sīmia ＞ simia, vindēmia ＞ vendẹmia vendanha.

Nc´y ＞ nts ＞ ns: ✱Francia ＞ Fransa. Cf. Nty.

Nd-g ＞ ndž: ✱pĕndĭcat ＞ penia, vĭndĭco ＞ vẹnie. Similarly mandūcāre ＞ ✱mandugare manduyare mandyare ＞ maniar[71].

Ndy ＞ n´: ✱Burgŭndia ＞ Borgọnha, verecŭndia ＞ vergọnha.

N-g ＞ ndž: ✱excommĭnĭco (= excommūnĭco) ＞ escomẹnie[71], mŏnăchum ＞ monie.

Ng´ ＞ n´ and ndž: jŭngĕre ＞ iọnher iọnger, ŭngĕre ＞ ọnher ọnger, plangĕre ＞ planher planger, pŭngĕre ＞ pọnher pọnger. Angel is probably learned.

Ng´y ＞ ndž: spŏngia ＞ esponia.

Nny ＞ n´: stanneum ＞ estanh.

Nty ＞ nts ＞ us: cantiōnem ＞ cansọ, comĭn(i)tiāre ＞ comensar, sperantia ＞ esperansa. Purely learned words have nti: essentia. Cf. Nc´y.

Ny ＞ n´: extraneum ＞ estranh, tĕneo ＞ tenh, vĕniat ＞ venha. Before or during the literary period final n´ or n´s lost its palatal quality in many dialects: ingĕnium ＞ genh gen. If estraniar comes from extraneāre (and not from ✱extranicāre), it must be a word of later adoption; so estrangier. In sotran ＜ subterraneum there is probably a change of suffix.

Pry probably became regularly bry: capreŏlum ＞ ✱cabriǫl cabirǫl (cabrǫl seems to be a new formation from cabra). Coyre ＜? cŭpreum is unexplained.

Pty ＞ ts, which, when it remained medial, was reduced, before and during the literary period, to s: ✱captiāre ＞ cassar, ✱corrŭptiāre ＞ corrossar, nĕptia ＞ nęssa, ✱nŏptias (§ 38, 2) ＞ nǫssas. Cf. C´y.

Py remained py in the west and a part of the south, and elsewhere became ptš, later tš: apium ＞ ache api, ✱apprŏpiat (＜ prŏpe) ＞ aprǫpcha aprǫcha aprǫpia, sapiam ＞ sapcha sacha sapia, sapiĕntem ＞ sachent sapient, sēpia ＞ sẹpia. Asabentar is from sabẹn. Piion ＜ pipiōnem is French. Learned words have pi: copia; but mancĭpium ＞ mancip massip.

Rc´y ＞ rts (＞ rs?): urceŏ́lum (Zs., XXVI, 668) ＞ orzǫl.

Rdy ＞ rdz: ✱dis-tardiat ＞ destarza. Ordi = hŏrdeum is perhaps from the genitive hŏrdeī, as in tres modii hordei, etc.

R-g ＞ rdž: clĕrĭcus ＞ clęries.

Rg´ ＞ rdž and rdz (＞ rz): argĕntum ＞ argen, ✱burgē(n)sis ＞ borgẹs borzẹs (also borgues, under the influence of borc), ✱dē-ērĭgit ＞ dẹrs, ✱dē-ē(i)gĕre ＞ dẹrzer (also derdre: § 71), sŭrgĕre ＞ sọrger sọrzer, sŭrgit ＞ sọrtz.

Rny ＞ rn´: ✱Arvĕrnium ＞ Alvęrnhe.

Rr-g ＞ rdž: ✱carrĭcat ＞ caria.

Rry ＞ ir: porrum ＞ ✱porreum ＞ poyre; but ✱horrearium? ＞ orgięr (cf. Körting).

Rt-g ＞ rdž and rts (＞ rs): ✱excŏrtĭcat ＞ escǫria escǫrsa.

Rty ＞ rts ＞ rs ✱fortiāre ＞ forsar, tĕrtium ＞ tęrz tęrs. Convercio is learned.

Rvy ＞ rvy rby: ✱cĕrvia ＞ cervia cerbia.

Ry ＞ r´, which developed into ir when it remained medial, but became r at the end of a word[72]: ✱exclariāre ＞ esclairar, ✱donatōria ＞ donadọira, ✱fĕria ＞ fęira fięira, fĕriat ＞ fęira, matĕria ＞ madęira, ✱mŏriat ＞ mǫira, primaria ＞ premęira premięira (§ 23, 1), ✱punitōria ＞ punidọira, varia ＞ vaira, variāre ＞ vairar; ✱a(u)gūrium ＞ aür, cŏrium ＞ cuęr, ✱donatōrium ＞ donadọr, impĕrium ＞ empięr, mĭnistĕrium ＞ mestięr, ✱mŏrio ＞ mǫr muęr, monastĕrium ＞ mostięr (§ 45, 3), primarius ＞ premięrs, ✱punitōrius ＞ punidọrs. If the ry is preceded by au, it apparently remains unchanged: Auriācum ＞ Auriac (Zs., XXVII, 559). Learned words have ri: bori ＜ ebŏreum, contrari.

Sc´y: see Ssy.

Ssy, sc´y, sty ＞ s´, which in most of the territory became is, but in the west and the extreme east developed into i(t)š and (t)š: ✱bassiāre ＞ baissar baichar bachar, ✱angŭstia ＞ engọissa, ✱ingrŏssiat ＞ engruęissa, fascia ＞ faissa, ✱grassiāre ＞ graissar, pŏstea ＞ puęissas pueih püch, ūstium ＞ üis.

Sty: see Ssy.

Sy ＞ z´, which in most of the territory became iz, but in parts of the northeast, north, and west developed into i(d)ž and (d)ž, and in some scattered dialects gave y and z: basium ＞ bais bai (§ 63), basiare ＞ baisar baiiar baiar bayar basar, quasi + vowel ＞ cais quaish, camisia (cf. Archiv für lateinische Lexikographie, XII, 265) ＞ camiza, cerĕsea (Einf., § 103) ＞ ciręiza cirięiia cerięya cerięza, ma(n)siōnem ＞ maisọn maiiọn maiọn mayọ, occasiōnem ＞ ochaizọ, pre(hen)siōnem ＞ preisọ (cf. enpreyọna, ‘imprisons’), quĭd se + vowel ＞ quẹis, Ger. sazjan ＞ saisir, to(n)siōnem ＞ toisọ.

T-g ＞ dž: ✱coratĭcum ＞ corage, ✱paratĭcum ＞ parage, viaticum ＞ viatie. For messatgue, etc., see § 65, (3).

Try apparently became ir: atrium? ＞ aire, arbĭtrium ＞ albire.

Tty ＞ ts ＞ s: ✱plattĕa ＞ plassa.

Ty ＞ apparently t´ ＞ d´ ＞ generally d´z´,[73] which in most of the west and north became dz, but in the south and east developed into idz; dz and idz, when they remained medial, were reduced, before and during the literary period, to z and iz: ✱altĭtia ＞ altẹza, ✱bellĭtia ＞ belẹza, malĭtia ＞ malẹza, pigrĭtia ＞ perẹza, ✱prĕtiat ＞ pręza, ✱rikĭtia ＞ riquẹza; palatium ＞ palatz palaitz palais (§ 64), pŭteum ＞ pọtz püis, prĕtium ＞ prętz pręs, solatium ＞ solatz solas; potiōnem ＞ pozọn poizọn, ✱pretiāre ＞ prezar, ratiōnem ＞ razọ raizọn, s(t)atiōnem ＞ sazọ saizọn. The forms without i prevail in the literary language, and in words in which the dz comes after the accent (especially in the ending -ẹza) they seem to have encroached largely upon the ground of the others.[74] According to some philologists, the development of ty differed according to its position before or after the accent: for a brief bibliography of the discussion, see Zs., XXVII, 689. In learned words we find zi, ci, çi, ti: estimatio, iustizia -icia -ecia -eçia, natio nacio, negoci, servizi -ici (cf. A. Horning, Zs., XXIV, 545, XXV, 736, XXXI, 200).

6. Groups Beginning with L, M, N, R, or S.

74. (1) Of the groups beginning with l (and not ending in l, r, w, or y), the following remained unchanged (except that c before a became tš in the north and northwest).— lb, lc (and llc), lg (llg), lm, lp, lv: alba ＞ alba; calcāre ＞ calcar, collocāre ✱colcāre ＞ colcar (-char); collocare ✱collogare ✱colgare ＞ colgar; hëlm ＞ ęlm, ŭlmum ＞ ọlm; cŏlăphum ✱cŏlpum ＞ cǫlp (κόλπος ＞ gọlfe is unexplained); calvum ＞ calv (= calf?), salvāre ＞ salvar. Ld, ls (lls), lt (llt) were regularly unchanged except for the vocalization of the l: see below. Lc´ (llc´) became lts, and then the l was vocalized: see below. Lc´p became lp in calce pīsāre ＞ calpisar. Lg´, llg´, have been treated in § 73. Lvs, lvt became ls, lt, and then the l was vocalized: see below.

(2) L became u before the dental consonants d, s, t in most of the dialects. The vocalization seems to have begun in the 8th century and to have progressed through the literary period and later. It is difficult to trace it, as l long continued to be written for u. In modern Provençal, ls remains in Languedoc, lt in Rouergue. Auça occurs in the Boeci. The l was probably first retracted, to differentiate it from the following dental; and then this velar l was opened into u. Ex.: cal(ĭ)daria ＞ caudiera, cal(ĭ)dum ＞ caut, sŏl(ĭ)dum ＞ sǫlt sǫut; falsum ＞ fals faus, malos ＞ mals maus, valles ＞ vals vaus; ✱fallĭta ＞ fauta, mŭltum ＞ mọlt mọut, ✱tŏllĭtum ＞ tǫlt tǫut; dŭlcem ＞ dọlz dọutz dọus, pŏllĭcem ＞ pǫutz, salĭcem ＞ sautz; calvus ＞ ✱cals caus, ✱vŏlvĭta ＞ vǫlta vǫuta. So ✱altiat ＞ auça aussa, ✱calceare ＞ cauçar caussar: cf. § 73, Lc´y, Lty. In dọs (= dọus) and mọt (= mọut) the ọ seems to have absorbed the u. Cf. § 65, L.

75. Of the groups beginning with m (and not ending in l, r, w, or y), the following usually remained unchanged—mb, md, mf, mp, ms, mt: gamba ＞ gamba (if bobansa is from βόμβος, it is irregular); ✱semitarium ✱semidarium ＞ semdięr; triumphāre ＞ triomfar; lampas ✱lampa ＞ lampa; ✱camisīle? ＞ camsil (dialectically cansil; so Samson, Sanso); cŏmĭtem ＞ comte (dialectically conte). For mbd in ambo dŭos see § 111, 2. Mn in the literary language generally remained unchanged (often spelled mpn), but in some dialects it was assimilated into nn, which was locally simplified into n: dŏmĭna dŏmna ＞ dompna domna donna dona, damnāre ＞ dampnar damnar dannar danar, fēmĭna ✱fēmna ＞ fẹmna fẹnna (feme is from fémena ＜ fēmĭna),[75] hŏmĭnem ✱hŏmnem ＞ omne (ome is from ✱ómene ＜ hŏmĭnem).[75] When final, it regularly became n, occasionally m: damnum ＞ dan, somnum ＞ son som.[76] Mnc´ ＞ ndz nz in ✱domnicĭlla ＞ donzẹla. Mpt mt ＞ mt, dialectically nt: computāre ＞ comtar contar, temptāre ＞ temptar tentar; domitāre ＞ domptar.[77]

76. (1) Of the groups beginning with n (and not ending in l, r, w, or y), the following generally remained unchanged (except that c, g before a became tš, dž in the north and northeast)—nc, nd, ng, nm, nt: hanka ＞ anca, blank- ＞ blanc (-ca -cha), franko ＞ franc (-ca -cha); mandāre ＞ mandar, ŭnda ＞ ọnda; lŏngum ＞ lonc (-ga -ia), plango ＞ planc, rĭng ＞ rẹnc; anĭma ＞ anma (also, by dissimilation, arma); sentīre ＞ sentir. For final nd, nt, see (2) below. Nc´ ＞ nts ns: ✱francē(n)sis ＞ francẹs, mancĭpium ＞ mansip (also massip: cf. ns below), vĭncere ＞ vẹncer vẹnser. Nct became in different dialects n´ int nt ntš: jŭnctum ＞ iọnh ioint iọnt iọnch, ŭnctūra ＞ onchüra, ✱pĭnctūra ＞ peintüra penchüra, planctum ＞ planh planch, sanctum ＞ sanh saint sant. Ndc´ became, in different dialects, ndz (later nz), nts, ndž: quīndĕcim ＞ quinze quintze quinge. Ndt ＞ nd nt: ✱rendĭta ＞ renda renta. Nf remained in some dialects, while in others it became ff, then f: confŭndit ＞ confọn cofọn, infantem ＞ enfant effant efant, infĕrnum ＞ enfęrn efęrn. Ng ＞ ng: mŏnăchum ✱mon’gu ＞ mongue (manĭcum ＞ margue by dissimilation). Ns, in learned words and new formations (see § 55, N), remained in most dialects, while in others (especially those of the centre) it became ss, then s; consĭlium ＞ consẹlh cossẹlh, in sĭml ＞ ensẹm essẹm, ✱insignāre ＞ ensenhar essenhar, pensāre ＞ pensar pessar, sensus ＞ sens; for final ns, see § 63, (5). Ntc´ ＞ nts ns in pantĭcem ＞ pansa. Nv remained in some dialects, while in others it became vv, then v: convenīre ＞ convenir covenir. Ndc, ndg, n-g, ng´ have been treated under § 73.

(2) Final nd remained as nt in the eastern and central part of the territory, became n in the west and a part of Limousin, and disappeared altogether in a part of Languedoc and Gascony: amando ＞ aman, descĕndit ＞ deissẹn, grandem ＞ grant gran gra, mŭndum ＞ mọnt mọn, vēndit ＞ vẹnt bẹn, profŭndum ＞ preọn, quando ＞ quant quan. Final nt remained in most of the territory, but in a part of Languedoc and Gascony became n or disappeared: fŏntem ＞ font fon fo, mŏntem ＞ mont mon, quantum ＞ quant quan, vĕntum ＞ vent bent be.

For efanh, parenh, monh ＜ mŭndi, etc., see § 51, 1.

77. Of the groups beginning with r (and not ending in l, r, w, or y), the following remained unchanged (except that c, g before a became tš, dž in the north and northeast)—rb, rc, rd, rf, rg, rm, rn, rp, rs, rt, rv: barba ＞ barba, cŏrbum ＞ corp; barca ＞ barca, cĭrcāre ＞ cercar, clĕrĭcum ✱clĕrcum ＞ clęrc, fŭrca ＞ fọrca fọrcha, mercātum ＞ mercat; ardĕntem ＞ arden, ✱perdūtum ＞ perdüt, vĭr(ĭ)dem ＞ vẹrt; ŏrphănum ＞ ǫrfe; ✱carricāre ✱carrigāre ✱cargāre ＞ cargar cariar, largum ＞ larc (-ga -ia), sērĭca ✱sēr’ga ＞ sẹrga; ĕ́rēmum ＞ ęrm, fōrma ＞ fọrma; hibĕrnum ＞ ivęrn, tabĕrna ＞ tavęrna, tornāre ＞ tornar; wërpan ＞ guerpir; arsum ＞ ars, cŭrsum ＞ cọrs (for vĕrsus ＞ vęs, see § 55, R); artem ＞ art, fŏrtem ＞ fǫrt; servīre ＞ servir. For final rn, rs, see § 63, (5); § 65, R. Rc´> rts rs: parcĕre ＞ parcer, parcit ＞ partz, ✱tŏrcĕre ＞ tǫrser. Rdc´ became, in different dialects, rdz (later rz), rts, rdž: quatuŏrdĕcim ✱quattōrdĕcim ＞ quatọrze quatọrtze quatọrge. Rdg before a ＞ rg, rdž: vĭridicantem ✱vĭrdigantem ＞ verguan verian. Rdt ＞ rd: perdĭta ＞ pęrda. Rps ＞ rs: ✱escarpsus (= excerptus) ＞ escars. Rtm ＞ rtm or rm: fŏrti mĕnte ＞ fortmen formen. For rg´ see § 73.

78. Of the groups beginning with s (and not ending in l, r, w, or y), the following usually remained unchanged through the literary period (except that c before a became tš in the north and northeast)—sc, sm (ssm), sn, sp, st: ✱bŭscum (? = bŭxum)? ＞ bọsc, ✱lŭscum ＞ lọsc, pascha ＞ pasca pascha, pĕrsĭca pĕssĭca ✱pĕsca ＞ pęsca, piscātor ＞ pescaire, piscarium ＞ pesquier peschier, þrëscan ✱trescāre ＞ trescar; ex-mĭttĕre ✱esmĭttĕre (§ 55, X) ＞ esmẹtre, pĕssĭmus ＞ pęsmes; eleemŏsy̆na ＞ almǫsna, asĭnum ＞ asne; expōnĕre ✱espōnĕre ＞ espọnre, gaspildjan? ＞ guespilhar; præpŏsĭtum ＞ prebǫst, trīstem ＞ trist. For final scs, sts, see 2 below. Sc´ became, in most of the territory, is; in parts of the north and northeast, s; in the west and the extreme east, i(t)š and (t)š (cf. § 73, Ssy): co(g)nōscĕre ＞ conọisser, crēscĕre ＞ crẹisser, ex-cĕrnĕre ✱escĕrnīre ＞ eissernir, ✱ex-cerebellāre ✱es- ＞ esservelar, fascem ＞ fais, nascĕre ＞ naisser nasser naicher nacher, pĭscem ＞ pẹis pẹich pẹch. Scb became sb in epĭscŏpus ✱ebíscobus ＞ bisbes (also bispes and ebesques). Spm became sm in blasphemāre ＞ blasmar. Spt ＞ st: hŏspĭtem ＞ ǫste (also ǫsde). Stg became sg and sdž in domesticāre ✱-gāre ＞ domesgar domesiar. Stm became sm in asthma ＞ asma. For the later history of the s in all these groups, see § 65, S, 1.

7. Miscellaneous Groups.

79. Of the groups not yet discussed, the most important are ct, gd, gn, ks, which show palatalization. It is now generally assumed that the Celts, who had turned their native ct into χt, pronounced Latin ct in the same way when they learned Latin (Meyer-Lübke, Einf., § 186), and likewise substituted χs for ks (Meyer-Lübke, Gram., I, § 650), and probably χd, χn for gd, gn. The χ was attracted into a palatal spirant by the following dental, and the dental itself was then palatalized. Most philologists explain the development of cl, gl into l´ (cf. § 68) in a similar way. Inasmuch as Indo-European pt had also been changed to χt in Celtic, it is not unlikely that the Celts substituted χt, χs for Latin pt, ps in a few words; the χ replacing p may sometimes have been rounded.

80. The groups will now be discussed in alphabetical order:—

Brg ＞ rg or urg in fabrĭca ✱fabrĭga ＞ farga faurga. Cf. § 70, Br.

Bs ＞ bs in the learned words absens, absensa.

Bsc ＞ sc: obscūrus ＞ escürs.

Bst ＞ st: sŭbstat ＞ sọsta.

Bt ＞ bt, t: subtīlem ＞ sobtil sotil. See also βt below.

Bts ＞ ts: sŭbtus ＞ sọtz.

βc ＞ uc: ✱avĭca ✱aβca ＞ auca.

βc´ ＞ udz or uts, later uz, us: avicĕllum ✱aβcĕllu ＞ auzęl aucęl. Cf. § 65, C´, 1.

βd ＞ ud, in the west bd: dēbĭtum ✱dēβĭdu ✱deβdu ＞ dẹude, mal’habĭtum ✱malaβĭdu ✱malaβdu ＞ malaude; cīvitātem ✱cīβidāde ✱ciβdad ＞ cibdat. Cf. βt below.

βt ＞ ut, in the west pt: dēbĭtum ✱dēβtu ＞ dẹute dẹpte, dŭbĭto ✱dŭβto ＞ dọute dọpte, mal’habĭtum ✱malaβtu ＞ malaute malapte; cīvitātem ✱cīβtate ＞ ciutat (later cieutat: § 44, 2) ciptat, ✱mŏvĭta ✱mŏβta ＞ mǫuta, ✱remōvĭtum? ＞ remọute (Girart). Depte, malapte are not confined to the west (modern Limousin dete, Dauphiné malate); they come also from Latin dēb’tum, mal’hab’tum: cf. § 47, (3).

Cc´ ＞ its ＞ is; in the west and the extreme east itš or tš: ecc’hīc ＞ eici eissi eichi achi.

Cm ＞ cm, m: ✱Jácomus ＞ Iacmes Iames (also, perhaps borrowed, Iaimes, Iaumes).

C´m ＞ im or sm: dĕcĭmum ＞ dęime dęsme, facĭmu(s) ＞ faim. Cf. § 52, (4).

Ct ＞ tš in most of the territory; but in the north and northeast, and in the southwest, it became, as in French, it: coctāre ＞ cochar coitar, dīctum ＞ dig dit, factum ＞ fag fait, lacte ＞ lag lait, lĕctum ＞ lięg lęit, lūcta ＞ lücha, nŏctem ＞ nuęg nuęit, pactum-a ＞ pacha, pĕctus ＞ pięg pęitz, ŏcto ＞ uęich[78] uęit. The ct of (e-)jectāre ＞ getar does not show popular treatment; the word is similarly irregular in most of the other languages.

C´t seems to give the same results as ct, namely tš and it: dīcĭtis ＞ ditz, ✱explĭcitāre ＞ esplechar espleitar, facĭtis ＞ faitz, placĭtum ＞ plach plait, (hence plaieiamen, plaideiar), ✱vŏcĭtum (= vacuum) ＞ vuęch vǫig[79] vǫh (hence voiar; voidar would appear to presuppose a form ✱vǫit).

DC, dg: see § 73, D-g.

DC´, in the greater part of the territory, became dz, later z; but in Auvergne and some western dialects it became ts, and in parts of the southeast and southwest it gave dž: duŏdĕcim ✱dōdĕcim ＞ dọze dọtze dọge, jūdĭcem ＞ iütge, radicīna ＞ razina, sēdĕcim ＞ sẹze sẹtze sẹtge. Iütge may have been influenced by iütiar.

Dn developed peculiarly in consuetūdĭnem ✱costūmen ＞ costüm, incūdĭnem ✱inclūd-? ＞ enclütge.

Gd ＞ dž and id, corresponding to the tš and it from ct: ✱frĭgdum (= frīgdum) ＞ frẹg frẹit (fem. frẹia frẹida).[80] The irregularity in amy̆gdăla ＞ amandola goes back to Vulgar Latin. Frezir freizir is perhaps from ✱fre(i)zar (cf. Italian frizzare) ＜ ✱frigdiare.

G’d: see Yd.

Gm ＞ m: pigmĕntum ＞ pimen. Fragment is learned. Greek γμ became um: phlĕgma ＞ flęuma, sagma ＞ sauma.

Gn ＞ n´: agnĕllum ＞ anhęl, pŭgnum ＞ pọnh. According to the rhymes, final n´ would seem to have become n in many dialects. Stagnum ＞ estanc, rēgnum ＞ rẹnc (also reing) show an early metathesis. When gnōsco lost its g, cognōsco became ✱conōsco in popular Latin.

Gnd ＞ n´d, later, in different dialects, ind, n´d, nd, ndž: cŏgnĭtum ✱cŏn´ĭdu ＞ ✱cǫnhede ✱cǫnhde, then cǫinde, cuęnde, cǫnge. Cf. Gnt below. See § 47, 1.

Gnt ＞ n´t, later, in different dialects, int, n´t, nt: cŏgnĭtum ＞ ✱cŏn´ĭtu ＞ ✱cǫnhete (the t being due to clerical influence) ＞ cǫinte cǫnte; dĭgnitātem ✱dĭn´tāte ＞ denhtat. Cf. Gnd above.

Ks ＞ is, in most of the territory; in Auvergne and in the extreme east it became itš or tš: ac sīc ＞ aissi, exāmen ＞ eissam eicham echam, exĭlium ＞ eissilh, exīre ＞ eissir eichir ichir, ✱exorbāre ＞ eissorbar, laxat ＞ laissa, uxōrem ＞ oissọr, tŏxĭcum ＞ tuęissec. In essaiar, essemple, essilh, the prefix became es- through the analogy of ex- before consonants: cf. § 55, X.

Ksc ＞ sc; before a, in the north and northeast, stš: ✱laxicāre ＞ laschar, toxicāre ＞ toscar.

Ksm ＞ s´m, later sm: prŏxĭmum ＞ prǫsme pruęsme. For the later history of the s (pruęime), see § 65, S, 1.

Kss ＞ is: ✱exsanguinātum ＞ eissancnat, ✱exsūcāre ＞ eissügar (essugar presupposes a Vulgar Latin es-: see § 55, X).

Pf ＞ f: sapphīrum ＞ safir.

Ppc ＞ (✱pc), ptš (before a): ✱cloppicāre ＞ clopchar.

Ps, in some dialects, remained unaltered; but in most of the territory it changed (through χs: § 79) to is, iš, š, s, and us; iš and š belonging especially to the west, us to the east: capsa ＞ capsa caissa caisha casha, ĭpse ＞ ẹps ẹis, ĭpsa mĕnte ＞ epsament eissamen ichamens, met-ĭpse ＞ medẹis mezẹish medẹs mezẹus, ne-ĭpse ＞ neẹps nẹis nẹus. The ps forms seem to have been crowded out by the others, especially by those with is.

Pt ＞ pt, later t (except in parts of Languedoc and Gascony); in a few words, ut, it: ✱accaptāre (or ✱accapitāre?) ＞ acaptar achatar, aptum ＞ apte, adaptāre ＞ azautar (hence azaut) through ✱aðaχtāre (§ 79), baptizāre ＞ baptegar (g = dž) bateiar, capitāle ＞ captal catal chatal, captīvum ＞ captiu catiu and more commonly caitiu chaitiu (through ✱caχtīβu: § 79), rŭpta ＞ rọta, septimāna ＞ septmana setmana, sĕptem ＞ sęt. Escrich escrit (= scrīptum) are based on dich dit.

Td ＞ t (through V. L. tt): nĭtĭdum ＞ nẹt, pūtĭdum ＞ püt. Cf. § 47, (1).

Tm: marĭtĭma ＞ marẹdma.

Tn: if renha, ‘rein’, is connected with rĕtĭne (see Körting), it must have been influenced by renhar ＜ regnāre.

Ts: et sīc, under the influence of ac sīc, became ✱ec sīc ＞ eissi eichi ichi.

Yd ＞ dž and id: cōgĭto ✱cōyĭdo ＞ cüg cüit, cōgitāre ✱cōyidare ＞ cüiar cüidar, rĭgĭdum ✱rĭyĭdu ＞ rẹide (§ 50, 1). Rede and the feminine reza are peculiar. Cf. § 49, (1).

FINAL CONSONANTS.

81. The only single consonants that occur in Latin at the end of a word are b, c, d, l, m, n, r, s, t. The only groups (in words preserved) are ks, nt, st.

82. D, n, r, t at the end of proclitics (ad, in, per, et) are really medial consonants and must be distinguished from final n, r, t in independent words (nōmen, frater, amat); final d occurs only in proclitics. The consonants will be treated in alphabetical order:—

C apparently fell after all vowels in some dialects; in others it fell only after back vowels, and became i after a and front vowels: eccu’hŏc (§ 55, W) ＞ acǫ (§ 43, 2), ecce hŏc ＞ aissǫ çǫ sǫ, hŏc ＞ ǫ meaning ‘it’ (while ǫc, ‘yes’ probably comes from ✱hocque: cf. A. Thomas in Rom., XXXVII, 322); fac ＞ fai, illác (§ 16, 4) ＞ lai la, ecce hac ＞ sai sa; dīc ＞ di, ecce hīc ＞ eici, sīc ＞ si. Düi ＜ dūc may perhaps be explained as due to the analogy of düire and of fai. Cf. § 63, (6).

D in apud fell early: see § 65, P, 2. In the proclitics ad, quĭd, the d disappeared before a consonant, and before a vowel became in most dialects ð ＞ z (cf. § 65, D): a, quẹ; að az, quẹð quẹz.

L fell in in sĭmul ＞ essẹm. It remained in the learned Abęl, tribunal. It is believed by some that sivals, ‘at least’, comes from sī vel.

M fell in Vulgar Latin at the end of a word of more than one syllable (§ 55, M): crēdam crēda ＞ crẹza, dōnum dōnu ＞ dọn, fŏrtem fŏrte ＞ fǫrt; Adam is learned. At the end of an independent monosyllable, it fell in some dialects and in others became n (cf. § 65, N): jam ＞ ia, rĕm ＞ rẹ rẹn (Marcabru uses rẹy for the rhyme), sŭm (verb) ＞ sọ sọn. At the end of proclitics, m was probably kept at first before vowels and labials, while it became n before dentals, ŋ before gutturals, and disappeared before spirants; but the n forms (helped by the analogy of en, non) and those without a final consonant replaced m before vowels and partly before labials, and probably took the place of ŋ before gutturals; we find, then, sometimes m before labials, but either no consonant or n before all other sounds: quĕm ＞ que, sŭm (verb) ＞ sọ sọn, sŭm (= sŭum) ＞ sọ sọn sọm, ✱tŭm (= tŭum) ＞ tọ tọn tọm.

N fell in Vulgar Latin at the end of a word of more than one syllable (§ 55, M): nōmen nōme ＞ nọm. At the end of proclitics we generally find n before a vowel, a form without n before spirants, both forms before other consonants, but often m before a labial: ĭn ＞ en (en amar, en cant), e (e Fransa, e ls), em (em breu); nōn ＞ non (non es, non ges), no (no falh, no tol), nom (nom plagues).

R remained: amātor ＞ amaire, cŏr ＞ cǫr, marmor ＞ marbre (marme shows dissimilation), sŏror ＞ sǫrre (sor through proclitic use). So in proclitics: per ＞ per, sŭper ＞ sọbre.