With the sample page accepted by the publisher or author, or both, the printer is authorized to proceed with the typesetting. Setting type by hand is now almost entirely superseded by machine-composition, except for the display pages (such as the title) and where the type itself runs larger than the English (14-point) size, this being the limit of the machines. Linotype[37] composition is cheaper than monotype,[37] but as the type is cast all in one line, instead of in separate characters, the cost of corrections is much higher. To change even a mark of punctuation requires recasting the entire line. If the manuscript is reasonably final in its form, the publisher is likely to order linotype composition; otherwise, monotype will be selected. Both machines carry the standard faces and sizes of type.
The first proofs sent out by the printer are called "galley-slips," or "galleys."[38] These are supposed to give the author opportunity to make such changes as are absolutely necessary. When returned to the printer, these galleys are made up into "page-proofs,"[38] and frequently go again to the author, or the type may be "cast" (made into electrotype plates) at this point. When page-proofs are submitted to the author, the publisher expects him to revise them, making sure that all his galley corrections have been properly made, rather than to make further corrections, as changes in the pages are still more expensive than in the galleys. If changes must be made, the author should endeavor to have the correction occupy exactly the same space as the matter cut out, or to cut out further matter to make room for the addition. Otherwise, the page so corrected will contain more than the standard number of lines, which must be thrown forward, and the make-up of each page changed to the end of the chapter.
Competent proofreaders in the best offices frequently call the attention of the author to errors in dates, figures, or proper names, but this should always be regarded by the author as a courtesy rather than as something which the printer is expected to do. The proofreader, on the other hand, is supposed to have corrected every typographical error, and for the author to mark corrections which have been overlooked is a courtesy on the part of the author. The fact that the author or editor has passed over typographical errors in no way relieves the proofreader of his responsibility.
The proofreader is expected to correct any obvious error without hesitation, but to make no other changes. If he thinks a change should be made, it will take the form of a query in the margin to the author. The author should carefully note all such queries, and answer them or strike them out, bearing in mind that if he accepts the query the change necessitated in the type becomes an author's correction, the expense of which falls upon the publisher.
Any marks on the proofs for correction should be made distinct by drawing a short line through the letter to be changed, etc., placing in the margin the recognized sign indicating the change, exactly opposite the line in which the change is to be made, and in the order in which the necessary alterations occur. In doing this be sure to write legibly, and do not cover the proof with lines and counter-lines.
The author should familiarize himself with the standard proofreading marks, and employ these in marking all corrections upon the proofs which are sent him. These marks are as follows:
THE above marks are the ones most generally used in proofreading. There are many others that are required in different classes of work, but these are in the main self-explanatory. This display of proof marks and their meanings has been prepared for The Graphic Arts and endorsed by the Boston Proofreaders Association.
The Graphic Arts, Boston
When the page-proofs are returned to the printer, they are carefully "read for foundry" by the proofreader, and all final changes in the type are then made. "Bearers"[39] are placed around pages, which are imposed[39] in chases[39] and sent to foundry.[39] Foundry-proofs are taken at this point.
The process of electrotyping is one of the most interesting steps in the making of a book, and authors will find it well worth while to brave the grime of the black-lead in order to become familiar with the detail. In brief, the type form is pressed down into a tablet made of wax or similar substance, in which it leaves an impression. This wax tablet is then allowed to remain in a galvanic bath, through which it becomes covered with a coating of copper. When separated from the wax, the thin, copper replica of the composed type is backed up by an alloy, and, after passing through various stages in finishing, finally becomes an electrotype plate.[39]
While the printer has been engaged in putting the manuscript into type, the publisher has had a designer at work upon a cover sketch, and an artist upon such illustrations as the book requires. All this has to fall in with the publisher's general scheme for the book as a whole. The designer must know what limits are placed upon him as to the number of inks or foils, or the amount of gold-leaf which he may employ. The artist must know whether his pictures are to be drawn for full color, two-color or one-color plates. In deciding these questions, the publisher is influenced by what he believes the book to require in its appeal to the public, and how great an expense is warranted by the probability of its success.
The illustrations in all except the most pretentious volumes are either halftone or lineplate photo-engravings. In making a halftone plate, the picture or object to be reproduced is photographed through a screen consisting of a glass plate, diagonally ruled at right angles in two directions with lines numbering from fifty to four hundred to the inch. This screen is placed inside of the camera and in front of, and very near, the chemically sensitized plate. The light reflected from the object to be photographed, varying in intensity according to the lights and shadows of the object, is focused on the sensitized plate through the intervening line screen, and affects the sensitized film more or less according to its intensity. This causes a chemical change of such nature that the next following operations, the development and the intensification of the picture, result in producing it in the form of dots and stipples varying in size, and consequently in the respective light and shade effects, according to the varying lights and shadows of the original. Inasmuch as the lights show dark and the darks light, the picture on the glass makes a negative of the subject. This negative is placed in a printing frame, in close contact with a polished copper plate prepared with a film sensitive to the light. A few minutes' exposure to the light renders insoluble in water those parts of the film which the light has reached through the negative, and when the other parts of the film, which remain soluble in water, are washed away, the picture appears clear on the surface of the plate. The dots and the stipples forming the picture are then further treated to enable them to resist the action of the solution of iron perchloride to which the plate is next subjected, which etches out the spaces between the dots, and leaves the latter in relief. As the etching on the copper must be in reverse as regards right and left, in order that it may appear in proper relation when printed on the paper, the negative must be produced through a reflecting prism, or the finished negative, properly toughened, must be stripped from the glass on which it has been produced, and turned over. In ordinary practice, a number of such turned negatives are placed together on a single large glass, and exposed together on a large copper plate, to be cut apart afterwards and mounted separately. The primary etching is usually supplemented by further processes, such as re-etching, vignetting, hand-tooling and routing. The finished plate is finally mounted on a wooden block to the height of type.
Illustrations in full color are reproduced from corresponding originals, usually paintings in oil or water-color, by means of the three-[40] or four-color[40] process of reproduction. The plates for this purpose are usually all halftone, but are sometimes a combination of halftones and Benday[40] plates. Two-color halftones have either a tint background, or secondary plate in tint, the latter forming the underground upon which the keyplate is printed in black. In the three-color process, the respective plates are printed in yellow, red and blue successively over one another. In the four-color process a fourth plate is used to emphasize the blacks of the picture, the plate being virtually a keyplate, combining all the features of the subject, printed on top of the other three colors, usually in black or dark gray.
It is of particular importance that the engraver who is to make the halftone plates should be informed as to the kind of paper they are to be printed on. A 50-line halftone plate will print on almost anything, but is too coarse to render the details of the picture, and is usually applied only for newspaper use. It would be entirely too coarse for the purpose of book illustration. On the other hand, a halftone plate made through a screen of 400 lines to the inch can be printed satisfactorily only upon paper of the highest surface, and with correspondingly careful presswork. For super-calendered or English-finish paper, plates made through a 133-line screen are most advisable, while the average coated or enameled paper will take 150-line halftones to best advantage.
Lineplates are etchings in relief on plates of zinc or copper, reproduced from pen-and-ink-drawings, or diagrams, by photo-mechanical process. The method in general is the same as that for halftone work, but without the intervention of the screen. In lineplates, the light and shade effects are produced by gradations of thick and thin lines, in distinction from the effects of wash-drawings and photographs, which are produced by gradations of tone. The latter require the intervention of the screen to convert the full tone gradations into the halftone of the dots and stipples, while the former may, as already noted, be reproduced directly.
Other classes of engravings, of a more costly kind, and which are therefore used only in books of more expensive character, are the various forms of engraving in intaglio; that is to say, in effects produced by cutting or etching the design into and below the surface of the plate, instead of cutting or etching away the ground, and leaving the design in relief. Examples of this order are the old-time copperplate engraving, the more modern steel-engraving,[41] in the form of line or mezzotint effects,[41] photogravure,[41] and the yet more recent photo-intaglio process known as rotogravure,[41] and photo-mezzotint.
Dies,[41] generally required for stamping the covers of books in gilt letters and designs, are cut in brass by hand or by finely adjusted routing-machines, the design being drawn upon the metal by an artist, or transferred to it by photography. In the case of very elaborate designs, the dies are first etched by nitric acid or iron perchloride, and the more open or less intricate spaces then deepened by hand, or by the routing-machines.
In selecting the paper for the book, the publisher must consider the surface required by his plates, the weight necessary to give a proper bulk in proportion to the size of his volume, and the quality as regulated by the price. The average book, with no text illustrations, is printed on wove[42] paper of antique finish, which is a fairly rough surface, giving a maximum bulk. A 12mo[42] book should bulk 1 to 1⅛ inches, a 10mo[42] book, 1⅛ to 1¼ inches. If the book runs more than an average length, a medium-or a plate-finish paper may be used, and the weight per ream is regulated by the number of pages in each volume and the bulk required.
Lineplates print satisfactorily on medium-finish paper, and even on antique-finish if the lines are not too fine. Halftones require English-finish,[42] super-calendered[42] or coated[42] paper. Inserts[42] are almost always printed upon coated paper.
Laid[42] paper is used in more expensive books, as, from its nature, better and more costly stock is required in its making.
Books are printed in forms[42] of 4 pages and multiples of 4 pages, depending upon the size of the paper leaf. The usual form is 32 pages, so the publisher tries to plan his volume to make approximately even forms. To print any number of pages over an even form is as expensive as to print the complete 32 pages.[43]
In binding, the questions to be settled include the style of back,—flat, half-round, or round; plain or gilt-top; headband[45] or not; trimmed or uncut edges;[44] kind of cloth,—T pattern,[45] silk,[45] vellum,[45] etc.; color and shade of cloth; location of dies; stamping,—ink, foil, gold or Oriental tissue, etc.; jacket,—glassine, manila, or printed.
THE proper layout for an ordinary volume, arranged in accord with the best usage, is as follows:
In limited editions, the limit notice is placed upon the reverse of the bastard-title, or on a left-hand page facing the bastard-title.
Following the text may be:
Considering these various divisions more at length:
The bastard-title, which is often wrongly called the half-title, is a modern evolution in its present application. Originally, this single-line title was the only title which existed, but as time went on the demand of the public, on the one hand, for a decorated page at the beginning of the book, together with the printer's desire, on the other hand, to advertise himself, developed the bastard-title into the dimensions of the title-page which we now know, containing the name of the book, the name of the author, the publisher's device, and the publisher's name and address. At the present time the bastard-title is used more to add elegance to the appearance of the volume than for any practical purpose, it being pleasanter for the eye to rest first upon this page rather than at once upon the title-page, which extends over the full dimensions of the type area.
If an advertising card or limit notice is required, this page of display should be set up with careful consideration of the page it is to face, and of the typography of the book of which it is to be a part. Too frequently advertising cards are looked upon as separate jobs, and are set in types which do not harmonize with the typography of the rest of the book.
The title-page offers the printer and the publisher a tempting opportunity for display and for artistic typography, and too few realize the value of restraint. Cobden-Sanderson once remarked, as explaining the high prices which he secures for his work, that he always charges more for what he leaves out than for what he puts in.
The earliest volumes lacked the title-page, because vellum and linen paper were held so high that the expense of an extra leaf was considered an unnecessary luxury. In these books that which took the place of the title was at the end, the colophon being in evidence, indicating the name of the illuminator, if not always that of the printer. As was the case with the manuscript book, the volume began with the phrase, "Here beginneth...." Later came piratical reprints, which resulted in making the critical reader insist upon having each volume stamped with the printer's name or mark, as a guarantee of reliable workmanship.
The first definite step in the direction of the title-page is marked by bibliographers in a little volume printed by Arnold Ther Hoernen, of Cologne, in 1470. It consisted of an introduction at the head of a page, the major part of which was left blank. Whether the printer forgot to place the usual introduction at the head of the first page, and took this way to remedy his error, is not known.
In general, different faces of type should never be combined upon the title-page, the variations being secured by using smaller sizes of the same face, or harmonizing fonts. Capitals and lower-case letters can be successfully combined on the title-page only as a result of care and thought, the best title-pages usually being all in lower-case or all in caps and small caps. A two-color title-page is rarely a success unless it was originally composed with two colors in mind, instead of being set up in black and arbitrarily split up for colors.
The decoration should never overbalance the type, and this applies as well to the question of borders on decorated books. No matter how beautiful, if the decoration overbalances the type, the volume or the title-page ceases to be an example of typography and becomes something answerable only to itself.
On the reverse of the title-page is ordinarily placed the copyright notice of the volume,[46] usually a little above the center, set in caps and small caps, or in small caps alone. At the foot of this same page the printer usually places his imprint.[47]
The dedication is a page set in the monumental style, generally in small capitals. This must always be a right-hand page, and the reverse must always be blank.
Ordinarily the preface is set in the same size of type as the body. If it is written by some one other than the author, it is frequently set in italic to mark the distinction. This is particularly true in case the book contains an introduction as well. If the preface is of unusual importance, it is sometimes customary to have it set in type one size larger than the body, or double-leaded.
After the preface and before the list of illustrations comes the contents, occupying whatever number of pages may be necessary. The style of its composition is dependent entirely upon the subject-matter and the typographical arrangement of the volume.
This follows the contents, and is always set in a style conforming to the contents page or pages.
See remarks under "Preface."
The half-title ordinarily consists of a single line, standing by itself on the first page of the leaf immediately preceding the first page of the text, and carries the title of the book as at the top of the first page of text. It is frequently confused with the bastard or false-title, which always precedes the title-page. Half-titles may also run through the book before various divisions, but the bastard-title never moves from its one position at the beginning of the volume.
If an edition be limited in number, the notice of such limit should be placed either on the page facing the bastard-title or on the reverse of the bastard-title.
The front matter is often put into type after the composition of the body has been completed, so that the number of pages is rarely definitely determined at the beginning of the work. For this reason, publishers have favored the expedient of numbering the preliminary pages with roman folios, using the arabic folios for the text itself. The front matter and the chapter pages running through the book offer opportunities for embellishment and distinctive typographical treatment, and therefore should be kept in exact accord, whether elaborate decorations are used or the severest form of typographical simplicity.
The following list gives the size of leaf to which the various standard names and proportions naturally fold:
| No. pp. to form | Size of sheet | Name | Size of leaf | ||||
| 32 | 19 | × | 25 | Thirty-two mo (32mo) | 3⅛ | × | 4¾ |
| 32 | 22 | × | 29 | Twenty-four mo (24mo) | 3⅝ | × | 5½ |
| 32 | 24 | × | 32 | Eighteen mo (18mo) | 4 | × | 6 |
| 32 | 27 | × | 34 | Sixteen mo (16mo) | 4½ | × | 6¾ |
| 32 | 30½ | × | 41 | Duodecimo (12mo) | 5⅛ | × | 7⅝ |
| 32 | 33 | × | 44 | Decimo (10mo) | 5½ | × | 8¼ |
| 16 | 24 | × | 36 | Octavo (8vo) | 6 | × | 9 |
| 4 | 18 | × | 24 | Quarto (4to) | 9 | × | 12 |
| 2 | 18 | × | 24 | Folio | 12 | × | 18 |
| Name | Abbreviated to | Pages to one sheet | Watermarks in hand-made |
| Folio | Fo. | 4 | Vertical |
| Quarto | 4to | 8 | Horizontal |
| Octavo | 8vo | 16 | Vertical |
| Duodecimo | 12mo | 24 | Horizontal |
| Sextodecimo | 16mo | 32 | Horizontal |
| Octodecimo | 18mo | 36 | Vertical |
| Vigesimo-quarto | 24mo | 48 | Vertical |
| Trigesimo-secundo | 32mo | 64 | Vertical |
Octavos
| Foolscap | 6¾ | × | 4¼ | may | become | Crown | 7½ | × | 5 | inches |
| Crown | 7½ | × | 5 | " | " | Demy | 8¾ | × | 5⅝ | |
| Post | 8 | × | 5 | " | " | Medium | 9½ | × | 6 | |
| Demy | 8¾ | × | 5⅝ | " | " | Royal | 10 | × | 6¼ | |
| Medium | 9½ | × | 6 | " | " | Super Royal | 10¼ | × | 6⅞ | |
| Royal | 10 | × | 6¼ | " | " | Imperial | 11 | × | 7½ |
Quartos
| Foolscap | 8½ | × | 6¾ | may | become | Crown | 10 | × | 7½ | inches |
| Crown | 10 | × | 7½ | " | " | Demy | 11¼ | × | 8¾ | |
| Post | 10 | × | 8 | " | " | Medium | 12 | × | 9½ | |
| Demy | 11¼ | × | 8¾ | " | " | Royal | 12½ | × | 10 | |
| Medium | 12 | × | 9½ | " | " | Super Royal | 13¾ | × | 10¼ | |
| Royal | 12½ | × | 10 | " | " | Imperial | 15 | × | 11 |
| Octavo | Quarto | |||||
| Pott | 6¼ | × | 3⅞ | 7¾ | × | 6¼ |
| Foolscap | 6¾ | × | 4¼ | 8½ | × | 6¾ |
| Crown | 7½ | × | 5 | 10 | × | 7½ |
| Post | 8 | × | 5 | 10 | × | 8 |
| Demy | 8¾ | × | 5⅝ | 11¼ | × | 8¾ |
| Medium | 9½ | × | 6 | 12 | × | 9½ |
| Royal | 10 | × | 6¼ | 12¼ | × | 10 |
| Super Royal | 10¼ | × | 6⅞ | 13¾ | × | 10¼ |
| Imperial | 11 | × | 7½ | 15 | × | 11 |
A feature not to be overlooked in the appearance of a well-printed book is that of the margins. The perfect type-page is supposed to be proportioned in such a way that its diagonal is twice its width. With this page as a basis, the location of the type upon the paper leaf is to be studied carefully. In general, the two pages, right and left, should be considered as a unit, and the top margin and the inside margin of each page should be approximately the same. Doing this, the total blank between the two pages is supposed approximately to equal the outside and the bottom margins.
The proportion of margin is, to a certain extent, dependent upon the size of the book, the margins becoming greater as the volume increases from the thirty-two mo size up to the folio. A student of typography has ingeniously estimated that, taking the height of the paper leaf as 100 units, the height of the type page of the ordinary trade book should be from 72% to 75%; that of a library edition, from 66% to 71%; that of a de luxe volume, from 60% to 65%.
EVERY book of a permanent nature, or intended as a work of reference, requires an index. The length of the Index, or its minuteness, depends upon the nature of the subject treated, and the importance of making it easily available to the reader. The Index belongs to the same family as the Table of Contents, and the Topical Analyses often placed at the beginning of each chapter: the Contents gives a general idea of the divisions into which the author has separated his subject; the Topical Analyses still further divide each chapter; and the Index is ordinarily still more minute, with the further advantage of having its references arranged in alphabetical order.
The proper person to make an index is, first of all, the author of the book, provided that he possesses the natural characteristics. It does not at all naturally follow, however, that all authors are competent to do this, for the art of indexing is not as simple as many superficially suppose. The author should be the one best fitted, because he knows better than any reader the exact meaning each of his sentences is intended to convey,—and this meaning should be expressed in the index. The ideal index is that which gives every topic, thought, or reference contained in the book itself, without a single superfluous word, and with no description or comment.
To make an index requires a quick grasp of the idea contained in each sentence or paragraph, an immediate discernment of the main thought, an instinctive classification, absolute accuracy in translating this thought into its briefest expression, ability to condense, and a sensing of the reader's needs in adequate cross-references. All this demands a mind more logical and more sensitive to codified detail than is possessed by many able writers. Under these circumstances, it is desirable to place the making of the index in the hands of one possessing these qualifications, either instinctively or as a result of experience.
Every publishing-house and most printing establishments of any consequence are in a position to have indexes prepared when required, but the danger is always present that the indexer, approaching his subject from the outside, will fail to place himself sufficiently in the author's attitude, and thus lessen the value of his work. It is most desirable, in order to prevent this, that the author carefully inspect the index while in manuscript. He can thus detect possible departures in the indexer's condensed expression of his own thought.
The following rules and suggestions are given with a twofold object in mind: first, to prevent those authors who possess the necessary qualifications from avoiding the preparation of their own indexes because of unfamiliarity with the technical details; second, to enable authors intelligently to criticize the form as well as the matter of those indexes which are prepared for their volumes by other hands.
The closeness with which a book is to be indexed depends partly upon the nature of its contents and partly upon the ideas of the author or publisher. Some indexes contain only the page references; some are so analytical that a reader can gain an excellent idea of the subject-matter itself. These, however, represent the two extremes. The ordinary index aims to give every reference necessary to enable the reader to locate easily the subject-matter for which he searches, but not a synopsis of that subject-matter. The entries should cover, then, with more or less minuteness, as desired, the following:
The indexer should decide definitely in his mind just what his procedure is to be before actually beginning work. At first, it is well to make the index too full rather than the reverse, as it is easier to cut out than to fill in. Most important of all, he must be sure that the matter to be indexed is clearly understood before he attempts to transcribe the idea. The character of the book to be indexed must be carefully considered, taking into account the class of people who will probably consult it, and the lines on which they will probably seek information.
Judgment is required in deciding whether it is wise to choose the exact words of the author or to condense the idea into other words. In technical books, the exact wording is sometimes essential, but otherwise it is more important to express the idea than the exact terms in which it is expressed.
Always prefer simple words and expressions to those which are unusual and cumbersome.
Omit every unessential word.
When the book being indexed is one written upon a specific subject, this main subject should not be indexed unless necessary to indicate some reference for which a searcher would look. Ordinarily, the Contents covers this point rather than the Index.
Bear in mind particularly the two extremes: the importance of including every reference necessary to enable the searcher to find what he wishes without delay or confusion, the mistake of overloading the index with useless entries.
Use ink, as pencil entries often become illegible.
Write plainly, and do not try to economize space in preparing the copy.
Subject: includes events, places, persons, facts, definitions or topics: e.g., Boston, 7; Bonnet, Father, 155; Huron Mission, plans for, 129; Onontio, meaning of, 102; Absolutism, contest with liberty, 274.
Heading: the word or words used by the indexer to express the subject or idea. In the examples above, the headings are Boston, Bonnet, Father, Onontio, etc.
Entry: the amplification of the Heading, with the addition of the supplementary phrase. In the example above, the entry is Absolutism, contest with liberty, the supplementary phrase being contest with liberty.
Cross-reference: a heading referring to an entry: e.g., Michabou. See Manabozho.
Having settled upon a definite plan, the indexer seats himself at a good-sized table, and lays out his materials in front of him. After testing every possible method, the present writer strongly urges the use of individual slips of paper, about 2½ inches by 4 inches. Arranged within easy reach in front of the indexer, but leaving room for the proof-sheets, should be twenty small pasteboard boxes,[48] a little larger than the slips themselves.[48] On the inside bottom of each box mark a letter of the alphabet, combining O and Q, U and V, and X Y Z. As soon as a slip is written, throw it into its proper box, and continue throughout the work. It is a false economy to search out the slips for subsequent entries, unless they can be easily found, as it is a simple matter at the end to combine the several slips which belong to the same heading.
Here are sample slips, showing a heading which requires full entries and one to which the text contains fewer references. The first shows a slip on which the various entries have been combined:
Andastes, the, 5; location and characteristics of, 36; synonyms of, 36; plans for converting, 130; war with Mohawks, 147; Hurons ask aid from, 162; mortal quarrel with Mohawks, 163; promise to aid Hurons, 163; Huron fugitives try to reach, 240, 250; Mohawks first to bear brunt of war with, 268; receive aid from Swedish colonists, 268; attack Senecas, 269; courage their only strength 270; finally overborne by Senecas, 270.
This slip shows the method of indexing a work in more than one volume:
James, Edwin, gives account of Nanabush, i. 67; on Indian ideas of another life, ii. 79.
In the rules which follow, the basis adopted is "Cutter's Rules for a Dictionary Catalogue,"[49] prepared for library cataloguing. Such portion as applies to book indexing has been freely drawn upon, adapted and added to from the present writer's experience.
When, under a single entry, there are both subject-references and references by folios only, place the folio-references together at the end of the entry, following the subject-references.
Arrange entries according to the English alphabet, whatever the order of the alphabet in which a foreign name might have been entered in its original language.
Arrange German names spelled with the vowels ä, ö, ü as if spelled ae, oe, ue, but retain the form employed by the author.
When the same word serves for several kinds of entries, the order should be as follows: person, place, subject, title: e.g., (1) Brown, G. F. (person). (2) Brown Village (place). (3) Brown-tail Moth (subject). (4) Brown Family, the (title).
Forenames precede surnames: e.g., Francis I precedes Francis, Charles.
In general, a noun or a substantive phrase should be selected for the heading, but when an adjective forms part of a name or well-known term, the entry should include it: e.g., Alimentary canal, hereditary genius, perpetual motion, etc.
It is not possible to formulate rules for indexing subject-matter as definitely as has already been done with names, places, etc. The judgment of the indexer and his analytical skill will be called fully into play. The effort should be to express in the index, in the clearest yet briefest form, the idea which the author has amplified in his text. As an aid to the nature and form of the entries, a page of text is shown on the opposite page, and the entries which would appear in the index from this page, are given below. This is what would be considered as a medium full index: