If the planet Guru (Jupiter) occupies either the 1st, 3rd, 4th, 6th, 8th, 10th, or 12th, square of a kundali, it is said to bring about a rupture with friends, pecuniary wants, and an increase in the number of enemies.285
If Shani (Saturn) occupies the 1st, 2nd, 4th, 5th, 7th, 8th, 9th, or the 12th square in a man’s kundali, it causes despondency of mind, family quarrels, imminent injuries from foes, and pecuniary wants.286
The presence of Mangal (Mars) in the 3rd, the 6th, or the 11th square is auspicious.286
Of the nine planets, Budha, Guru, and Chandra are benevolent, Mangal and Ravi are neither benevolent nor baneful; and Shani, Rāhu, and Ketu are downright malevolent.287 Each planet has a story connected with it concerning its benevolence or malevolence, and showing also the way to secure its propitiation. For instance, the malevolence of Shani drove King Vikrama to unknown countries, and subjected him to grave calamities. On the advice of a wise man, however, he observed the Saturday-vows and thus overcame his difficulties.288
When a planet is unfavourable to a person, it has to be propitiated by vows, and the person who is under its evil influence often lays upon himself the obligation of abstaining from particular articles of food or from wearing certain articles of clothing for a certain number of days.289 Particular days of the week are set apart as appropriate for the worship of particular planets, and, on such days, the person keeping the vow observes a fast and worships the planet through the medium of a Brāhman.290 For instance, vrats or vows are observed on Tuesdays in honour of Mangal (Mars), when an image of the planet, engraved on a golden dish, is worshipped, and the person observing the vow takes food consisting of wheat only, and that too, only once during the day. This mode of fasting is followed for a number of consecutive Tuesdays prescribed by an astrologer; and on the last Tuesday, when pūrnāhuti291 is offered, Brāhmans are feasted and dakshina is given to them. A piece of red cloth and some corn are used in the installation of the planet; these and the golden engraving are carried away by the priest.288
Similarly, in propitiating Rāhu and Ketu the same ceremonies are gone through: only, instead of wheat, mug (Phaseolus mungo) is eaten by the devotee. In the same way Shani (Saturn) is said to favour the diet of adād (or lentils): Guru (Jupiter) inclines to chana (or gram), while Shukra (Venus) favours cholā (dolichos sinensis).288
Certain forms or figures, called mandals, are favoured by particular grahās, and are drawn in their honour in worshipping them. Different things, too, are given in charity in honour of different planets.292
All the nine grahas and the twenty-seven nakshatras are worshipped on the occasion of the Griha-Shanti ceremony, which is performed before occupying a newly erected building.287
It is considered inauspicious to hold a marriage ceremony while Shukra (Venus) is invisible. In such a case, however, the ceremony may be performed after setting up and worshipping a small golden image of the planet.
Of the stars, the constellation of saptarshi is perhaps the one most often worshipped. Its worship forms a part of the ceremonies performed on the occasion of investing boys with the sacred thread293 and also of the ceremonies of marriage. The worship of the saptarshi on marriage occasions is believed to be an attestation of the marriage, and to secure the benign care of the saptarshi for the couple. The form of worship is sometimes as follows: a red and white piece of cloth is stretched on the ground, bearing an image of the saptarshi over it; wheat and rice are scattered over the cloth, a ghi-lamp is lighted, and red lac and flowers are offered to the image.294 Another form of worship is to mark seven red-lac-dots on a pātla or a wooden stool, and to place seven pice and seven betel-nuts thereon. After worshipping the seven pice, the bridal pair are made to take four turns round the stool, touching the stool with their great toes at every turn. A proverb runs to the effect that, whatever may happen to the couple, still the seven pice of satpati (i.e., the ceremony described) are secure.295 A third process is to form seven small piles of kamod,296 on each of which, successively, the bride places her right foot while the bridegroom removes each pile one by one.297
The fifth day of the bright half of Bhādrapad (the eleventh month of the Gujarati Hindus) is observed as a day of worship in honour of the saptarshi group. People observe a fast on that day. Brāhmans set up seven chāts298 in honour of the seven sages, adding an eighth in honour of Arundhatī, the wife of Vasishtha, and worship them by shodashopachār (i.e. sixteen-fold ceremonial). The worship is said to secure felicity for departed souls.299
The saptarshi are also annually worshipped by Brāhmans on cocoanut-day (the 15th day of the bright half of Shrāvan) on the occasion of changing their sacred threads. Hindu seamen also worship the constellation on the same day.300
In the performance of the Nīl-parvān ceremony, which is held to propitiate the spirits of departed ancestors, and which requires a calf and a heifer to be married, an entertainment being simultaneously given to one hundred and eight Brāhmans, and on the occasion of Vastu or the ceremonies performed before or at the time of occupying a newly-built house, burnt offerings and worship are offered to the saptarshi.301
Every Brāhman must offer arghyas302 to, and worship, the agastya constellation, in a hut of darbha303 and kāsada,303 within seven days from the date of its appearance. Failure to make this offering brings pollution on him for seven months, and disqualifies him from performing any of the rites or ceremonies prescribed by the Shastras.301
Married couples are made to look at the Pole star immediately after the Hymenal knot is tied by the priest, in the hope that they may be as long-lived or as inflexible or unmoved by the ups and downs of life.295
The twelfth day after the death of a person, known as Tārā-bāras (or the star-twelfth) is kept as the day of star-worship by the relatives of the deceased, when one member of the family observes a fast on that day in honour of the deceased, and takes food only after worshipping the stars at night. It is customary on this day to give up the use of bronze vessels and to give them away in charity.304
Just as persons carrying or accompanying a corpse to the cemetery are considered sutaki (under ceremonial impurity), so those who witness this rite are also considered unclean: but they are purified by a sight of the stars.305
Young girls watching the starry sky at night recite a verse which means, “I worshipped the star-spangled firmament first and then my lover Ābhlā dabhlā Kankunā dābhlā306—“Ye stars! blind the prowling thief and seize him if he tries to steal away, and your blessings on my lord confer!”307
The Rohini and Krittika constellations, popularly known as Gadli, are supposed to indicate the rise and fall in the cotton-market.308
The dimmest star of the saptarshi group foretells the death of a person within six months from the date on which it becomes invisible to him.309 Again, if a man cannot perceive the saptarshi or the galaxy in the sky, it is considered such a bad omen that his end is believed to be near at hand.310
The rainbow is believed to be the bow of Indra,311 the god of rains, and is therefore called ‘Indra-dhanushya.’ We see it when Indra draws his bow to release the rains from the rākshasas (demons);312 or, when successful in bringing down rain, Indra manifests his glory by drawing a bow;313 or when in the struggle for supremacy between Summer and the rainy season, Indra draws his bow to defeat Summer.314
It is also believed that when Rāmachandra, the hero of the Rāmāyana, adjusted an arrow to the bow of Shiva, to compete for the hand of Sītā in the swayamvara (or maiden’s-choice marriage) celebrated by her, the bow was split into three pieces, which ever since present themselves as rainbows in the sky.315
The rainbow is popularly regarded as an indication of good or bad rainfall according as it appears at particular hours and in particular directions. If a rainbow appears in the east a speedy rainfall is expected; if on the other hand it is seen in the west, rainfall is apprehended to be distant.316 Some people, however, believe the contrary, i.e., they regard the appearance of a rainbow in the west as an indication of good rains, and in the east as a sign of scarce rainfall.317 Perhaps both ideas are reconciled by a third belief according to which the appearance of a rainbow in a direction facing the sun, indicates the proximity of rain.318
If a rainbow is seen at sunset or sunrise just before the commencement of rain the fall of rain will be excessive; but if it appears after rainfall, the rain will probably cease.319 According to some persons the appearance of a rainbow in the morning portends a drought.320 There is, however, a popular saying to the effect that were the kachbi, i.e., the rainbow, to be seen at sunrise in the west, it foretells great floods before nightfall.314
The sight of a rainbow is sometimes regarded as a bad omen. Some believe that it shortens a man’s life and brings misfortunes to him.310 Others believe that it is calamitous to a man’s relations by marriage, especially to the mother-in-law, who is sure to lose her power of hearing.321 People sometimes clash earthen vessels against one another to avert the evils which are to be feared from a rainbow.322 It is also said that the sight of the whole of the rainbow is a good omen: but the sight of a part, however large, is inauspicious.323
According to the Purānas, the milky way or ākāsh-ganga is the celestial River Ganga which was brought down by Bhagīrath to the earth.324 King Sagar once performed an ashwa-medha325 sacrifice, when, according to custom, he let loose a horse, and sent his sixty thousand sons with it. Indra, jealous of the growing power of Sagar, stole the horse and concealed it in the hermitage of Kapila, when the sage was deeply absorbed in religious meditation. The sixty thousand sons of Sagar followed it to this asylum, where they taunted and insulted the sage, believing him to be the thief. Kapila, who was ignorant of the theft, opened his long-closed eyes in anger, emitting sparks of flame from them, and destroyed the sons of Sagar together with the whole of their army. Bhagīrath, the grandson of Sagar, propitiated the sage, and on his advice practised religious austerities in honour of Shiva for the purpose of bringing down the River Ganga from heaven. Through the kindness of God Shiva, Bhagīrath was at last successful in bringing the celestial river down to this world; and with the water of the river he revived the sons of Sagar. The River Ganga (i.e., the Ganges) in this world is therefore also known by the name of Bhāgirathi. It is this heavenly river which we see as the milky way.326 Like the sacred Ganges on the earth, the River Ganga in the celestial regions is held in great respect by the gods327 and purifies the heavenly bodies, just as the earthly Ganges washes away the worst sins of mortals.323
Some people, however, believe the milky way to be the track by which the holy Ganges descended from heaven to earth.328
Another belief is that the God Vishnu, at the time of his Vāman (or Dwarf) incarnation, touched the ina (i.e., the Egg) in his third footstep and thus caused a flow of waters, which is known as ākāsh-ganga.329 Some suppose the milky way to be a ladder leading to the heavens.330 Astrologers call it Vatsa, a fictitious creature with numerous horns, mouths, and tails.331 According to another belief, the milky way consists of two rekhās—lines—one of sin and the other of good and meritorious actions. The length of one line compared to the other betokens the predominance of good or evil as the case may be.332 The milky way is also supposed to be the track left by the rath or car of Rāmachandra.333
Ākāsh-ganga or the milky way is said to consist of one crore and eighty lacs of stars.334 If a man cannot perceive the milky way in the sky, his end is believed to be near at hand.335
The Musalmāns declare the milky way to be the track formed by the footstep of the horse of the Prophet Muhammad, on the occasion of his night-journey to Heaven.330
The occasion for earth-worship most frequently arises when anything is to be built upon its surface. At the time of setting the manek-stambha, or the first pillar of a marriage-bower or a bower for a thread-ceremony,336 before commencing the construction of wells, reservoirs, and tanks336 and in laying the foundation-stone of a house, a temple, or a sacrificial pit,337 or of a street, a fortress, a city, or a village,338 or of any constructive work raised upon or made under the ground, certain ceremonies, called khat-muhūrt or khat-puja, are performed. The earth-mother is then worshipped in the manner prescribed in the Shastras, to propitiate her against interruptions in the completion of the work undertaken. The owner or the person interested in the new construction pours a little water on the earth where the foundation-pit is to be dug, sprinkles red lac and gulal (red powder), places a betel-nut and a few precious coins, and digs out the first clod of earth himself.339 Some of the things offered to the earth at the time of khat-puja are panchāmrit,340 betel-nuts, betel-leaves, pancha-ratna (or the five kinds of precious things, namely, gold, silver, copper, coral, and pearls), a bowl and green garments.337 Under the influence of particular rāshis (signs of the zodiac), particular corners of the building under construction are required to be dug in the khat-muhūrt ceremonies.338 For instance, a little digging in the north-west corner is believed to be favourable to the constructor who happens to be under the influence of Sinha (Leo), Kanya (Virgo) and Tula (Libra): in the north-east corner, if under the influence of Vrishchika (Scorpio), Dhanu (Sagittarius) and Makar (Capricornus): in the south-east corner if under the sway of Kumbha (Aquarius), Mīn (Pisces) and Mesha (Aries): in the south-west corner in the case of Vrishabh (Taurus), Mithun (Gemini) and Kark (Cancer).338 After the worship of the earth-mother, sugar or molasses is distributed among neighbours, bystanders and relatives, in token of the auspiciousness of the occasion.341 An image of Ganpati is worshipped in a copper-dish, this is buried underground, and a brick is laid on it when starting the work of construction.338 In setting up the manek-stambha on marriage occasions, a small earthen bowl is filled with milk, curds, turmeric, dūrvā-sprouts342 and mag seeds (Phaseolus mungo), and buried in the ground after being sprinkled over with red lac and rice.343
The ceremonies appertaining to khat-muhūrt are treated of at length in a book called Dharma-sindhu.344 They are believed to secure durability of construction.339
On the Dasarā345 day or the 10th day of the bright half of Ashvin (the last month), Rājās go out in state with their ministers and subjects to worship the earth-mother and the holy shami tree (prosopis spicegera). A wetted plot of ground is first dug over with pikes, javālā (tender wheat plants) and shami leaves are then mixed with the muddy earth, and small balls of the mixture are made. A pice and betel-nut are placed in each ball, and they are presented to the worshipper as a mark of good luck. Travellers carry such balls with them on their journeys for luck. Kings carry the same to obtain success on the battle-field. The Pāndavas had such balls with them on the field of Kurukshetra when they obtained a victory over the Kauravas.346 The balls are also used as pastānā.347 The javālā in the balls are taken out and allowed to grow in an earthen vessel filled with clay and manure till they reach a span in height, when they are taken up and used.348
Earth-worship is performed before burying treasure underground, and also when a marriage-procession, at the time of returning, reaches the limits of the bridegroom’s village.349
In some places, virgins worship the plot of ground on which the Holi is lighted, for about ten or twelve days after the Holi holiday.350
Another occasion for earth-worship is the third day of the bright half of Chaitra (the sixth month), on which day Vishnu saved the earth in his Varāha (or Boar) incarnation, when it was being carried to the nether regions by the demon Shankhāsur.351
On the eighth day of the bright half of Māgh and also of Āshvin (the fourth and the last month respectively), naivedya (an oblation of food) is offered to the earth-mother, and is then used as her prasād (gift). No cooked food is allowed to fall on the ground on this day: even the leavings after meals are given away to cows.352
When any ceremony is to be performed on the earth’s surface, as much of the spot as is required for the ceremony is cleansed by watering it and plastering it with cow-dung. A betel-nut and a pice are then placed on it as the Chādā or rent of the spot.353
On those occasions when dakshina is given to Brāhmans outside the village limits, worship of the earth-mother is performed by pouring milk on the ground, and by placing seven betel-nuts and seven single copper-pieces thereon.354
Some ambitious Brāhmans dig earth from near the roots of a banyan tree after offering prayer to the earth, and out of it, make an image of Parthishwar—Lord of the Earth—hoping thereby to obtain wealth. The same ceremony, if observed near the roots of a pipal tree (ficus religiosa), is believed to confer wealth and male issue.348
When Vishnu killed the demons Madhur and Kaitabha, the earth was strewn with their flesh and marrow (meda). Therefore the earth is called medini, and for the same reason is unclean, and no holy objects are allowed to touch it.355 Another explanation is that the earth was rendered unclean because blood was shed on its surface in the combat of the demon Vritrāsur with the god Indra.356
The things polluted by a contact with the earth are either objects which are to be dedicated to gods, such as sandal-wood ointment, panchāmrit,357 the leaves of the bel tree (Aegle marmelos), tulsi leaves (leaves of the holy or sweet basil plant), betel-leaves and flowers;358 or objects which are sacred because of their having been dedicated to the gods, including tīrtha359 or water used in bathing the images of gods360; or things which are by nature so holy that it is improper to place them on the bare earth; for instance, images of deities, water of the sacred Ganges or the Jumna,361 any holy writ,362 a conch-shell and even gold.363 Cooked food also deserves respect, as it supports the lives of men, and it is sinful in a Hindu to let it lie on the bare ground. Any irregular conduct in this respect arouses the wrath of the Annadeva (or the food deity).364
It is, however, maintained by some that the reason why certain things, such as materials of worship, are not allowed to touch the earth, is that the earth itself being a deity, such things would be dedicated to this deity by a contact with the earth and would thus become incapable of any further use, as things that are dedicated to one deity cannot again be offered to another.365
During the course of the recitation of mantras (holy hymns) in honour of Vishnu and Mahādeva; on the occasion of offering prayers to the grahas (planets) for their propitiation; and on occasions like Vishnuyāga,366 Mahārudra,366 Shatachandi366, Gāyatri-purashcharan367 and Brāhmana-varana368 the devotee or the sacrificer and the priest sleep on darbha grass or on clean woollen blankets, spread on the bare ground.358
Other occasions for sleeping on the floor are the days of the observance of certain vrats or vows; such as, the Divāsa or the 15th day of the dark half of Āshādh (the ninth month), the Janmāshtami or the 8th day of the dark half of Shrāvana (the tenth month), the days of Goatrad, a vrat lasting from the 11th day to the 15th day of the bright half of Bhādrapad, Mahāshivarātri or the 14th day of the dark half of Māgh, the Ekādashi day or the 11th day of both the bright and dark halves of a month,362 the Navrātra days or the first nine days of Āshvin, eclipse days, and the day of Jāgran or the 15th day of the bright half of Āshādh,364 besides, sometimes, the whole of the months of Shrāvana and the Purushottam or intercalary month; and the chāturmās, i.e., the four months of the rainy season.369
A Brāhman in his brahmacharya (or the period of his life which, according to the Shāstras, should be devoted to the acquirement of learning, and which commences from the date of his being invested with the sacred thread and terminates at the age of twenty-three) and a widow are not allowed by the Shāstras to sleep elsewhere than on beds made on the ground.362
Women, while in menstruation, sleep on the floor for four days.359 Some women, when they are separated from their husbands, also sleep in this fashion.369
A dying person, two or three minutes before his death, is placed on the ground, which is first purified with cow-dung-plaster.370 For ten days after a death, the members of the deceased’s household and his relatives sleep on beds spread on the bare ground.371 If the demise be very affecting, the nearest relatives sleep on the floor for periods which may extend to three months, six months, or even for a year, and sometimes the penance lasts for their whole lives.370
It is customary, among some sects, not to allow the sātharā—i.e., the spot lately occupied by a corpse in the house—to be suna or unoccupied for a single night. Someone must sleep on the spot for twelve consecutive days from the date of demise.372
Pilgrims,373 after pilgrimage, abandon sensual pleasures, take their meals only once every day, and sleep on the floor.370 It is customary to sleep always on the ground while in holy places. Devotees, ascetics, sādhus, and their disciples sleep on the ground.371
The God Indra has twelve meghas or clouds under his control, and he directs each of them to pour out their waters wherever he likes. When in the least irritated in the execution of his orders, Indra’s voice is heard in this world in thunder-claps which rise to a terrible pitch if the deity becomes downright angry.370 Thunder is also said to be the loud laughter of Indra when in a happy mood.374
Another belief is that during the rainy season, Indra plays gedi-dānda375, and the strokes given to the gedi in the course of the game, produce what we call thunder;376 or, that the clouds are god’s footballs, and thunder is produced by his foot striking them, while at play during the rainy season.371 Some believe thunder to be due to the loud sounds produced by various musical instruments which are played upon the occasion of the marriage-ceremony of Indra.377 According to others, thunder is produced by the cannon of Indra;378 or, as some again say, by the trumpetings of Airāvat, the elephant of Indra379; or, we hear thunder when Indra draws his bow and adjusts an arrow to the bow-string, in order to bring about the fall of rain.380
A further belief attributes thunder to the very rapid pace of the chariot of Bhagwān.381 Some people, however, say that it is produced when Bhīma (one of the five Pāndavas) wields his prodigious club or bludgeon.382 In the opinion of others, Vidyut or Tanyatun, the offspring of Lambā, the daughter of Daksha, and the wife of Dharmarāj thunders in the rainy season.383 It is also suggested that the god of rains shakes the heavens and thus produces thunder.372 The Shāstras, it is said, declare that thunder is caused by the sounds of the dundubhi—or kettledrums—beaten by the gods in delight at the sight of rain.384 There is also a popular belief in the Surat district that an old hag causes thunder either when she grinds corn or when she rolls stones in the clouds.385
The prevalent belief about lightning seems to be that it is the girl whom Kansa tried to dash against a stone, but who escaped and went up to the sky. Kansa, the tyrant king of Mathura, was informed by a heavenly voice, by way of prophecy, that a son would be born to his sister who would cause his destruction. Kansa thereupon confined his sister Devaki and her husband Vasudeva in prison, loaded them with fetters, and kept the strictest watch over them. He took from Devaki, and slew, every child of hers as soon as it was born. In this way he disposed of her first six children. On the seventh occasion, however, on which Devaki gave birth to a son named Krishna, a girl was born at the same hour to Nanda in Mathura; and Vasudeva secretly interchanged the two children in spite of the vigilance of Kansa. When Kansa knew of his sister having been delivered, he seized the infant girl and tried to dash her against a stone. The little one immediately flew away to the skies, where she still dwells in the form of Vijli or lightning.386
The Shāstras describe Vijli as the distinctive weapon of Indra, just as pashupatākā is peculiar to Shiva and the Gāndīva bow to Arjuna.387
Other beliefs about lightning are that Vijli is the sister of Megharāja, the god of rains, and appears to announce his approach:388 that Vijli is a goddess who rests upon winds, fire, and rains:389 that Vijli is but the thunderbolt of Indra:390 that lightnings are the flashes of the bright weapon of Indra:391 that lightning is the lustre of the fireworks and the lamps lighted by the gods in honour of the nuptials of Indra:392 that lightning is produced by the sparks caused by the friction of the gedi and the dāndā of Indra when the god plays the game.393 Vijli is also known as Saudāmini, i.e., one residing on Mount Sudāma.394
The occurrence of thunder and the appearance of lightning on particular days and in particular directions are regarded as signs of the abundance or scarcity of rain during the season.
Thunder during the Rohini nakshatra395 is a bad omen: it foreshadows either a famine,396 or a Boterun, i.e., complete cessation of rains for seventy-two days after the thunder-claps are heard.391 According to another view, if the Rohini nakshatra lasts for a fortnight and if the sky is clear during the period and yet lightning and thunder occur, a Boterun will be the consequence; but if lightning and thunder were to accompany the clouds in the same nakshatra, heavy and plentiful rains may be confidently expected.397 Lightning without clouds in the same nakshatra is believed to be the cause of what is popularly called Rohinī-dāzi, i.e., the burning heat of Rohini.398
Some persons expect a Boterun after kadakas or crashing thunder. Others apprehend a famine if they hear thunder on the second day of the bright half of Jyeshtha (the eighth month).391
Thunder or lightning in the Hasta399 nakshatra foretells good harvests and a prosperous year.400 Thunder in the same nakshatra is believed to muzzle the jaws of serpents and other noxious creatures, and to achieve this object, also, a sāmelu (or a log of wood) is struck against a mobhārā (or a hollow stone used for threshing corn).401 If thunder is not heard during this nakshatra, mosquitoes and other insects and vermin are believed to be likely to multiply.402
If thunder is heard during the Ārdrā nakshatra, the rainfall will be delayed for a month.403
Lightning is commonly seen on the second and the fifth day of the bright half of Āshādh, and is considered a sign of good rainfall, while its absence indicates a probable scarcity of rain.404 Its appearance on the fifth day of Āshādh is believed by some to foretell an early fall of rain.400 Since the rainfall, and therefore the state of the crops during the ensuing year, are suggested by lightning on this day, corn-dealers settle a rise or fall in the price of corn according as lightning is or is not seen on that occasion.405
Thunder in the east predicts a speedy fall of rain.400 If flashes of lightning are seen in the north-east or the north, rain will fall within three days.400 Lightning in the south-east or the south foretells extreme heat.406
Long-continued thunder shows that the rainfall is distant. Similarly, continued flashes of lightning intimate danger to the lives and property of people.406 Sudden thunder portends an immediate cessation of rain.400 Thunder or lightning out of season threatens calamity to the country.407
Vijli or lightning is said to be fettered on the fifth day of the bright half of Āshādh—(or, as some say, on the second day of Shrāvan)401—after which date no apprehensions of its destructive powers need be entertained.408 Till then, however, it is free and is likely to injure those persons409 who have not cut or shaved their hair from their birth.410
The occurrence of lightning is believed to cause the delivery and sometimes even the death of pregnant women.411
Any period marked by the occurrence of lightning is considered inauspicious.412
The Puranas speak of fourteen worlds—the seven swargas (celestial regions) and the seven pātāls (nether regions)413. Underneath the seventh pātāl414 lies Shesha (the divine cobra) who supports all the fourteen worlds on one of his one thousand hoods. On account of the heavy burden, the serpent-god sometimes gets tired, and tries to change his position. The result of the movement is an earth-quake.408 According to another version, an earthquake occurs when Shesha changes his posture in sleep,415 or is the result of a hair falling from the body of Shesha.416 Some people say that ordinarily Shesha does not feel the weight of the fourteen worlds on his head; he bears the load as if it were only a single sesamum seed. But when too much sin accumulates in any of the regions, the burden becomes unbearable for him: he begins to shake under it, and an earthquake occurs.417
Some believe that there is a tortoise under the divine cobra who supports the world;418 others go further, and add a frog below the tortoise:419 and it is said that the slightest motion on the part of either the tortoise or the cobra is the cause of an earthquake.
Another belief is that earthquakes occur whenever there is tyranny or injustice on the part of a king, or whenever immorality spreads in society, because the earth is unable to bear the sin, and trembles at the sight of it.420
According to a different opinion, the earth is supported by the Pothia or the favourite bull of Shiva on one of his horns. An earthquake is caused whenever he transfers the earth from one horn to another in order to relieve the former from the constant pressure of the burden.421
There is also a belief that deities of some strange species reside in the nether regions, and the earth is shaken whenever these beings fight among themselves.419
According to the Varāha-sanhita, an earthquake is always the precursor of some unprecedented calamity.422 The prevalent belief in the popular mind seems to be that an earthquake is the result of immorality and sin, and further that it forebodes some dire calamity, such as famine, pestilence, an outbreak of fire, a revolution, or a great war.423 The phenomenon is, therefore, regarded with great fear; and when it occurs, people endeavour to avoid the contingent evils by such meritorious acts as the giving of alms, and generally by leading a virtuous life.424
The most popular of the holy rivers are the Ganges, the Jumna (or Jamuna), the Narbadā, the Saraswati (near Sidhpur), the Kāveri, the Godāvari, the Gandaki, the Sarayu, the Dāmodari, the Sindhu (or Indus), the Mahānad, the Gomati (near Dwārka), the Brahmaputra, the Sābarmati, the Ghels (near Gaddheda), the Tungabhadra, the Suvarnabhadrā, the Bhadrashitā, the Jambuvati, the Phalaku (or Phalgu), the Kaushiki, the Tāmraparni, the Sita and the Alakanandā. Any point where three rivers meet is also a sacred place. Most of the holy rivers are the subject of many traditions, and books have been written to celebrate their merits.
The Ganges, the Jumna, and the Godāvari are said to be the holiest of all rivers.423 There are a number of beliefs about the origin of the Ganges. One of them is that the Ganges is the stream caused by King Bali washing the feet of Vāman (the Dwarf incarnation of Vishnu).425 Another story relates that the god Brahma was exhausted by overwork at the time of the marriage of Shiva and Pārvati. The gods, therefore, created water from their own lustres, and gave it to Brahma in a gourd, to be used in a similar contingency. When Vishnu in his Vāman avatār (or Dwarf incarnation) bestrode the heavens with a single step, Brahma washed his toe in the water from this gourd. A stream was thus created called Swarga-ganga and brought down to the earth by Bhagīrath, the grandson of Sagar. When the Ganges fell from the heavens, it was supported and held fast by God Shiva in his jatā or matted hair. It was released by his loosening the hair, and in its course, inundated the sacrificial ground of King Jahnu. The latter, being angry, drank up its waters. On the entreaties of Bhagīrath, he released the stream by tearing off his thigh.426 The river then flowed to the spot where the sixty thousand sons of Sagar were burnt to ashes; and it is said by some that one of the sixty thousand was saved at the end of each year up to the year 1955 of the Samvat era (corresponding to A. D. 1899), by the end of which period all the sixty thousand had attained salvation. From the earth the Ganges went to the nether regions. Thus flowing in the heavens, on the earth and in the Pātāl, the Ganges is called Tripathaga (i.e., flowing in three courses). In its divine form, the Ganges is the wife of Shiva. Owing to the curse of Brahma, she was born in human form in this world and was married to Shantanu, by whom she became the mother of Bhishma, the heroic uncle of the Kauravas and the Pāndavas.427
It is customary among Hindu pilgrims, when they visit Kāshi (Benares) to take with them copper-vessels filled with Gangājal (water of the Ganges), and to worship the Gangā when they reach their homes after the pilgrimage. A figure is drawn in seven different kinds of corn; the bowl is placed on it; abil gulāl (red powder), frankincense, and naivedya (an oblation of food) are offered: a ghi lamp is lighted: a Brahman woman is dressed as Uma, the wife of Shiva, and Brahmans are entertained at a feast, dakshina being given to them.428
The water of the Ganges, as well as that of the Jumna, is believed to be so pure that it cannot be affected by microbes, even if kept for years in the house. This quality is believed to be a manifestation of its divine nature. It is further called patit-pāvan (lit. purifier of the fallen), and exculpates the sinful from their sins, either by a single draught or by bathing in it.429 Gangājal is kept in most Hindu families, a draught of it taken by a dying person being believed to secure moksha or eternal salvation for the soul.430
A vow is observed by women, in honour of the Ganges, for the first ten days of the month of Jyeshtha. On these days they rise early in the morning and bathe in the holy waters of the Ganges.431
Sometimes ghi lamps are placed upon the waters of the Ganges or the Jumna, and vessels of metal, pice, and cocoanuts are cast into the stream. At such a time, when many people are standing on the banks offering prayers with folded hands, or engaged in the arati,432 the river presents a very picturesque scene, the numerous lights being reflected in the water.433
The Jamuna or Yamuna is the daughter of the Sun, and the sister of Yama, the god of Death. The banks of the Jumna are well known as the scene of the amorous sports of God Krishna.434 The story of the defeat of the demon Kāliya Nāg who was ejected from the Jumna by Krishna is well-known.
It is said that those who have bathed in the Jumnā or have once tasted its water, need not be afraid of Yama, the god of Death.435 It is considered meritorious among the Hindus to bathe the image of god Shiva in water from the holy Jumnā or the Ganges or the Godāvari.436 There is a popular shloka in honour of the Jumnā which runs:—“Victory to thee! Oh Yamunā, flowing through the Madhu-vana (the Madhu woods), the bearer of shining waters, the companion of Jāhnavi, the daughter of Sindhu, the ornament of the enemy of Madhu (viz., Krishna), the appeaser of Mādhava, the dispeller of the danger of Gokal, the destroyer of the sins of the world, the giver of intellect, the scene of the amorous sports of Keshava. Victory to thee! O remover of difficulties, purify me.”437
The banks of the Godāvari are known as the site of the hermitage of Gautama. When the planet Brihaspati (Jupiter) enters the Sinha-rāshi (the constellation Leo)438 the holy Ganges goes to the Godāvari, and remains there for one year. During that year, all the gods are believed to bathe in this river. Thousands of pilgrims visit Nasik to offer prayers to the Godāvari, and after bathing in the river, give alms to Brahmans. Similarly, on the Kapilāshashti day, on which six jogs or conjunctive incidents occur simultaneously, the virtue of all tīrthas or holy places is believed to be concentrated in the Godāvari at Nasik.437
The mere sight of the Narbadā has the same effect as a bath in the Ganges or the Jumnā.439 It is said that the Narbadā is the image of Shiva, and that fragments of the stony bow of Shiva are to be found in its bed.440 The stones in the bed of this river have the same sanctity as the images of god Shiva.441 Shāligram stones, which are worshipped as the images of Vishnu, are found in this river.441 It is an act of high merit among Hindus to take a pradakshinā round the Narbadā, i.e., to travel along the banks of the river, inhabited as the region is by many Sādhus and other holy persons.442 Ashvatthāmā, the immortal son of Drona, is believed to reside on the banks of this river and to pay occasional visits to the Bhils in the neighbourhood.442 The Shukla-tīrtha, situated on the Narbadā, is visited by numerous pilgrims, and a fair is held there on every sixtieth year.442
The sage Kapila instructed his mother Devahūti with divine knowledge on the banks of the Saraswati. Since then, the river is held sacred and funeral ceremonies—Shrāddhas—are performed on its banks in honour of departed female ancestors.440 Similarly Shrāddhas in honour of male ancestors are performed at the confluence of the Ganges, the Jumnā, and the Saraswati at Allahabad.443444
Of the Gandaki it is said that it contains as many shankars (images of Shiva) as there are sankars (stones). The shāligram stone is found in this river also. The Saryu is sacred as the scene of the childish sports of Rāmachandra, the hero of the Rāmāyana. On the banks of the Phalaku or Phalgu, Rāmachandra performed Shrāddha ceremonies in honour of his father Dasharath.440
A bath in the waters of a holy river washes away the sins of the bather.445 It is also meritorious to repeat the names of the several holy rivers.446 The performance of Shrāddha ceremonies on the banks of a holy river secures the felicity of deceased ancestors in heaven.445 At the time of performing Shrāddhas at a holy place, Hindus shave their moustaches, bathe in the sacred waters, and then go through the necessary ceremonies, in the course of which pindas are offered to the Pitars (spirits of dead ancestors). Brahmans are feasted after the ceremonies, and dakshinā is given to them.447 Tarpan or an offering of water with flowers, ointment, red lac, cocoanuts, and betel, is frequently made to the river on the banks of which the ceremonies are performed.448 The bones of a deceased person, left unburnt after cremation of the body, are gathered together and thrown into holy rivers such as the Ganges, the Jumnā, and the Godāvari, for the purification of his soul.449
When heavy floods threaten a village or a city with serious injury, the king or the headman should go in procession to propitiate the river with flowers, cocoanuts, and other offerings in order that the floods may subside.450 A story is related of the occurrence of heavy floods in a village in the Jatalpur taluka, when a certain lady placed an earthen vessel (ordinarily used for curdling milk), containing a ghi lamp, afloat on the floods, whereupon the waters were at once seen to recede.451
Besides the holy rivers, there are numerous kunds or sacred pools which are regarded with equal reverence, and in which a bath has the same efficacy for destroying sin. Similarly, they are equally suitable places for the performance of Shrāddha ceremonies. These kunds are the subject of numerous beliefs, and each of them has a certain māhātmya or peculiar merit of its own. Six miles to the east of Dwārkā, near the sea-coast, there is a kund called Pind-tārak, where many persons go to perform the Shrāddha and the Nārāyan-bali ceremonies. They first bathe in the kund: then, with its water, they prepare pindas, and place them in a metal dish: red lac is applied to the pindas, and a piece of cotton thread wound round them; the metal dish being then dipped in the kund, when the pindas, instead of sinking, are said to remain floating on the water. The process is believed to earn a good status for the spirits of departed ancestors in heaven.445 It is further said that physical ailments brought on by the avagati—degradation or fallen condition—of ancestors in the other world, are remedied by the performance of Shrāddha on this kund.452
The Dāmodar kund is situated near Junāgadh. It is said that if the bones of a deceased person which remain unburnt after his cremation are dipped in this kund, the soul of that person obtains moksha (or final emancipation).445
There is a vāv or reservoir on Mount Girnār, known as Rasakūpikā-vāv. It is believed that the body of a person bathing in it becomes as hard as marble, and that if a piece of stone or iron is dipped in the vāv, it is instantly transformed into gold. But the vāv is only visible to saints and sages who are gifted with a supernatural vision.453
Kāshīpuri (Benares) contains a vāv called Gyān-vāv, in which there is an image of Vishweshwar (the Lord of the universe, i.e., Shiva). A bath in the water from this vāv is believed to confer upon a person the gift of divine knowledge.445
In the village of Chunval, a few miles to the north of Viramgām, there is a kund known as Loteshwar, near which stands a pipal tree. Persons possessed by ghosts or devils, are freed from possession by pouring water at the foot of the tree and taking turns round it, remaining silent the while.454
A bath in the Mān-sarovar near Bahucharāji is said to cause the wishes of the bather to be fulfilled. There is a local tradition455 that a Rajput woman was turned into a male Rajput of the Solanki class by a bath in its waters.454
There is a kund called Zilāka near Zinzuwādā with a temple of Naleshwar Mahādev near it. The kund is said to have been built at the time of King Nala. It is believed locally that every year, on the 15th day of the bright half of Bhādrapad, the holy Ganges visits the kund by an underground route. A great fair is held there on that day, when people bathe in the kund and give alms to the poor.456 There is also another kund close by, known as Bholava, where the river Saraswati is believed to have halted and manifested herself on her way to the sea.457