The Northern, or sub-tropical, triangle possesses a large number of elevated health stations, varying from 5,000 to 9,000 ft., from Darjeeling, north of Calcutta, to Thandiani, near Peshawar. All of these afford an excellent refuge from the extreme heat of the plains, but the eastern stations have so heavy a rainfall as to make them barely tenable during the rains, although Assam possesses, in Shillong, a delightful health resort, not unlike Ootacamand in miniature, where the rainfall is comparatively moderate and it is possible to drive about the station, if one is not too particular as to the size and magnificence of one’s equipage. With this exception, however, it is better, provided the choice be an open one, to resort to one of the western Himalayan stations, as in the others the period of the rains is somewhat trying even to adults, and is especially badly borne by children.

The principal data of the climates of the regions described above may be gathered in detail from an inspection of the table on pages 56, 57, as the places therein mentioned include one or more towns in each of the regions into which we have, for purposes of description, divided the Indian peninsula. Owing to the size of page it is impossible to adhere to our general plan of tabulating the facts in both the English and Continental scales, and in place of duplicating the table according to the metric nomenclature, it has been thought better to reproduce a table of the same character from Hann’s “Klimatologie,” as by this course the facts are expressed from a different point of view, and it enables us to some extent to supplement the original list with the data of a number of additional places.

Lastly, the table on next page, from Blanford, is reproduced, as it illustrates well the remarkable differences of climate in the matter of annual ranges of temperature that are to be found within the confines of the Indian peninsula.

The Bay of Bengal naturally has a climate which generally resembles that of the surrounding coasts. During the south-west monsoon the winds are strong, and there is generally a heavy sea running, but throughout the period of north-easterly winds, from October to May, a calm sea with moderate breezes will as a rule be met with, the pleasant weather being interrupted only by occasional cyclonic storms during the first half of the period. Short spells of rather bad weather due to disturbances of this sort will be met with in every year, and it is rare for a season to pass without rather heavy weather, but the really serious storms, which meet the popular notions of what a “cyclone” should be, are fortunately rather rare. Of these dangerous disturbances, the greatest number occur in October, but they are not unknown even in the period of the south-west monsoon. Out of 111 noticeable revolving storms “in the Bay” that have occurred in 139 years, Blanford states that the monthly distribution has been as follows:—

It will be noted that there is a second maximum in May, so that one of the most important factors in determining these storms is obviously the change of the monsoon. Their influence rarely reaches far inland, so that one rarely hears of serious damage being inflicted much further inland than Calcutta, and even there, the havoc seldom goes beyond the uprooting of a few trees and the unroofing of crazy native huts. At sea these storms are no light danger, but it is to be doubted if they ever approach the terrific visitations that are to be met with in the West Indies.

The Indo-Malay Peninsula.

—The climate of the coast of Arakan and Lower Burmah generally resembles that of the other side of the Bay of Bengal, but has a much heavier rainfall, as may be seen from an inspection of the following table of four ports situated on the west coast of the peninsula with that of Madras.

The more even distribution and the appearance of two maxima as the Equator is approached are also well shown in this table, which further shows that the north-east coast of the Bay of Bengal includes some of the rainiest places on the face of the globe.

Although the Burmese coast has so moist a climate, the greater part of the moisture pouring in from the sea is precipitated on the rather high range of hills that extends along the entire length of this peninsula, at no great distance from the coast; so that as we ascend the Irrawaddy, the rainfall steadily diminishes, until in the far inland regions of Upper Burmah we get a climate reproducing, in many respects, that of north-western India, though of course to a much less marked degree. This change from extreme moisture to moderate dryness may be followed by comparing the three following climatic tables of stations in Burmah.

Conditions of space make it difficult here to express the data in both scales, accordingly the English scale only is given. The higher rainfall of Bhamo as compared with Mandalay is attributable to its proximity to the great range of hills which divide Burmah from China.

Straits Settlements.

—Singapore has, or had, a yacht club, “The Equatorial,” the course for whose regattas was supposed to be “the Line,” so that the climate of this colony is necessarily of the equatorial type. There is practically no seasonal change, as although the maxima of rainfall occur in March-April and December, the other months have also an amount of precipitation not far short of these specially rainy months. The annual range of temperature is under 18° F. (10° C), and though the climate is rather moist, excessive heat is never met with; the mean maximum of April, the warmest month, being but 89° F. The main climatic facts may be gathered from the subjoined table:—

During January and February the wind is mainly from the north-east, but varies greatly, often veering round to the north-west. The south-west monsoon, known here as the “Java winds,” comes on about April and continues only to July, after which month, till November, the winds are again very variable, the most common directions being south-south-west, south-east, and west.

Considering its proximity to the Equator the climate is wonderfully pleasant, the nights being always cool enough to sleep at ease, and though there is generally a pleasant breeze, the island enjoys an almost complete immunity from storms.

Siam

, owing to its geographical position, is to some extent preserved from the heat, rain, and devastating cyclones common in adjoining countries, the high mountains with which it is almost completely surrounded, cutting it off from most of their effects. The coolest month is December, though the absolute minimum may occur at any time from November to February; and the hottest, April.

The lowest temperature recorded during ten years by Staff-Surg. J. Campbell, R.N., from whose observations these notes are compiled, was 57° F. (13·9° C), and the highest 97·5° F. (36·4° C). December is the driest, and September the moistest month of the year, and hail fell once in fifteen years. Droughts are rare. The south-west monsoon becomes weak in September. Early in October northerly breezes set in, varying at first to east and west of north, and by November the north-east monsoon is established, to reach its strongest in December, and then gradually failing till early in March, when the “Kiti” breezes—south to south-south-west—usher in the monsoon. From May to August the winds are sometimes boisterous. The above remarks apply to Lower Siam and to Bangkok in particular, for which the table below, compiled from Campbell’s figures, gives the main climatic data.

Some authorities make the rainfall of Bangkok considerably less, but Campbell’s observations extended over several years and may perhaps be preferred. The delta of the Menam River is annually flooded between June and November, and the spring levels are close to the surface all the year round. North of the delta of the Menam is the Korat Plateau, some 700 feet above the sea-level, a wilderness of shadeless bush, interspersed with salt marshes. One of the main drawbacks of the country is the scarcity of potable water, the supplies both in the Menam delta and on the Korat being almost always brackish and a nearly certain cause of digestive disturbance for Europeans, who thus have to rely greatly on aerated waters imported from the Straits.

Upper Siam, on the other hand, enjoys a dry climate with cool nights, but speaking generally the climate is an exceptionally trying one for European residents.

Cochin China

 has a moist, hot climate. During the dry season, which lasts from November to April, the temperature varies from 95° F. during the day to 63° F. at night (35° to 17° C.), whereas during the rains, which last from May to October, the range of variation is only between 86° and 68° F. (30° to 20° C.); the relative humidity at this season reaching 89 per cent. Further north, in Tongking, the range of temperature is wider, from 99° to 18° F. (36° to -7° C.). The rainfall is much heavier than in Siam; Saigon, lat. 10° 47′ N., receiving its maximum of 17·7 ins. (423 mm.) in September and a total rainfall of 74 ins. (1,873 mm.); while at Hue, lat. 16° 33′ N., the wettest month is October, with 26·15 ins. (664 mm.), and a total of 102 ins. (2,592 mm.). Further north, at Hai-fong, in lat. 20° 57′ N., the most rainy month is August, with 14·8 ins. (374 mm.). July falls but little short of this, but the total is less than that of the other two stations, amounting to no more than 64 ins. (1,627 mm.).

The change to the north-east monsoon in November is not unfrequently marked by sudden and devastating storms. The climate has a very bad reputation, malaria, dysentery of a peculiarly deadly type, and diseases due to internal worms, being very common, especially during the rainy season.

China.

—Owing to the backward state of the country, there is singularly little information of a definite character available with respect to the enormous Chinese Empire, the entire southern half of which comes within the scope of the tropical climatologist. In the south, regular observations are carried on in the British colony of Hong Kong, and in the north at Zi-ka-Wei, near Shanghai, an admirably conducted observatory is conducted by the Jesuit missionaries, who so often enrol themselves as the pioneers of science.

Speaking generally, however, whether in the case of littoral or continental climates, those of China appear to compare favourably with localities of the same latitude in India and the Indo-Malay peninsula.

The following are the figures for the island of Hong Kong for the year 1901, as I am unable to discover any collated statistics.

In the Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps, vol. i., No. 1, Major S. F. Clark writes: “The climate of Hong Kong varies in the different places. At the Peak, 1,500 feet above the sea, it is always bearable in summer, and is quite crisp in winter, an occasional film of ice being sometimes visible in the mornings. In fact, if one had not to descend to the lower levels for work, it would be no hardship to live at the Peak, where the fog is really the main trouble. Children do well up there, but get very white down below.

“In the city the summer is very trying. From May to September, both inclusive, the sun is strong—reaching 94° or so in July and August—and the humidity of the air is practically at saturation point. With the breeze cut off by the Peak the situation is thus by no means pleasant, and cases of heat apoplexy always occur at this time. The temperature averages 86° to 88° during these months, and the nights also are stiflingly hot. By the help of punkahs, electric fans, rickshaws and chairs, the work of the colony goes on. The summer is also the rainy and typhoon season, and these visitations luckily cool the air for some days. The rain is very heavy at times, but of late years droughts have prevailed. For the other seven months the climate is not unpleasant, and in December, January and February, is quite cold, without reaching freezing point. The humidity of the air, however, is always considerable. This dampness of the air, especially foggy weather at the Peak, is very destructive to clothing, books, &c., and tin-lined boxes are essential. Ladies’ garments require much care to preserve them from destruction.”

It is, however, fortunately possible for most people to live at “the Peak,” between which and the town there is frequent communication by means of cable tram.

Considering that Hong Kong lies well to the south of Calcutta, it must be confessed that the climate is wonderfully good, and one cannot but think that Major Clark would wish himself back in Hong Kong were he to negotiate an exchange to almost any station in the plains of India.

On the mainland, at Canton, the climate is much less uniform, the north-east wind of the cold season rendering the nights singularly cold for so southerly a position.

The China seas are visited by revolving storms of a most violent character, known locally as typhoons, but as in those of the Bay of Bengal, their more serious effects do not appear to extend far inland.

The Island of Formosa, with a mean annual temperature of 74·6° F. (23·7° C.), has a typically marine climate, the difference between the coldest and hottest months, February and June, being but from 67·7° F. (19·8° C.) to 81° F. (27·1° C.), or only 13·5° F. (7·3° C.). The south-west monsoon bursts towards the end of May, and the rainfall, especially in the north of the island, is very heavy and evenly distributed, though there is a distinct dry, winter season in the south, as may be seen by the contrast of the rainfall of the following two Formosan stations—Kilung, in lat. 25° 8′ N., and Takao Anping, in 22° 47′ N. (Hann).

The total annual rainfall is 122 ins. (3,581 mm.) for Kilung, and 65·25 ins. (1,658 mm.) for Takao Anping.

Further north, the monsoon bursts somewhat later, very much in the same way as it does in India; but here, again, the climate is much cooler than would be met with west of the Malay Peninsula in the same latitudes.

The above table, which is drawn up from the observations of several years, shows, apart from the remarkably low temperatures, an amount of both diurnal and annual variation that is very remarkable in a place so close to the sea. Strictly speaking, indeed, it should not come in the category of hot climates at all, but in the absence of other accurate material it is valuable for the purpose of showing how soon tropical temperatures are left behind as we proceed northward along the Pacific coast of Asia.

The Malay Archipelago.

—Consists of a number of large islands situated on either side of the Equator, and generally too close to it to enjoy the benefits of a well-developed monsoon.

South of lat. 10°-12°, a north-west monsoon, developing in October or November, takes the place of the south-west monsoon appearing in May in northern latitudes, and when we are sufficiently far from the Equator to be clear of the zone of calms and variable winds, it is the development of this wind that determines the appearance of the rainy season.

This, however, does not so much affect the Malay Archipelago, as nearly the whole of it is within the zone of double annual rainy seasons, and the winds on which they depend to temper the tropical heat are mainly land and sea breezes of necessarily very variable direction.

The Dutch have long had a first-class observatory established at Batavia, the capital of Java, and their results being thus of the first value may be very well taken as a type of the weather conditions of the islands to the south of the Equator, while the table already furnished of Singapore will serve sufficiently to illustrate the northern portion of the Archipelago.

A mild, equable, damp climate, not so hot as would be met with at a corresponding distance north of the line, never cool, and equally free from excessive heat, but very enervating; and unfortunately the health records of these islands are by no means satisfactory.

From January to early April the winds are usually from the north-west, and from May to October north-east, the remaining two months of the year being characterised by winds of very variable direction.

The two following tables will give some idea of the temperature and rainfall of a few sites in this Archipelago, arranged progressively in their order north and south of the Equator.

As examples of places in this archipelago which chance to have a special interest for English-speaking people on both sides of the Atlantic, I give below fuller data of the climates of Manila in America’s new acquisition of the Philippines, based on from 16 to 34 years of Spanish records; and of Port Moresley, in the newly established British colony in New Guinea, which naturally cannot as yet do more than furnish a single year’s experience:—