JABALU MŪSĀ (جبل موسى‎). The Mount of Moses; Mount Sinai. It is called in the Qurʾān, Sūrah ii. 60, at̤-T̤ūr, “The Mountain.”

AL-JABARĪYAH (الجبرية‎). Lit. “The Necessitarians.” A sect of Muḥammadans who deny free agency in man.

They take their denomination from Jabr, which signifies “necessity or compulsion;” because they hold man to be necessarily and inevitably constrained to act as he does by force of God’s eternal and immutable decree. This sect is distinguished into two species, some being more rigid and extreme in their opinion, who are thence called pure Jabarīyahs; and others, more moderate, who are therefore called middle Jabarīyahs. The former will not allow men to be said either to act, or to have any power at all, either operative or acquiring, asserting that man can do nothing, but produces all his actions by necessity, having neither power, nor will, nor choice, any more than an inanimate agent. They also declare that rewarding and punishing are also the effects of necessity; and the same they say of the imposing of commands. This was the doctrine of the Jahmīyahs, the followers of Jahm ibn Sufwān, who likewise held that Paradise and Hell will vanish, or be annihilated, after those who are destined thereto respectively shall have entered them, so that at last there will remain no existing being besides God, supposing those words of the Qurʾān which declare that the inhabitants of Paradise and of Hell shall remain therein for ever, to be hyperbolical only, and intended for corroboration, and not to denote an eternal duration in reality. The moderate Jabarīyahs are they who ascribe some power to man, but such a power as hath no influence on the action; for as to those who grant the power of man to have a certain influence on the action, which influence is called Acquisition, some will not admit them to be called Jabarīyahs, though others reckon those also to be called middle Jabarīyahs, and to contend for the middle opinion between absolute necessity and absolute liberty, who attribute to man acquisition, or concurrence, in producing the action, whereby he gaineth commendation or blame (yet without admitting it to have any influence on the action), and, therefore, make the Ashārians a branch of this sect. (Sale’s Koran, Introd.)

JABARŪT (جبروت‎). The possession of power, of omnipotence. One of the mystic stages of the Ṣūfī. [SUFIISM.]

JABBĀR (جبار‎). Omnipotent; an absolute sovereign. Al-Jabbār, “The Absolute.” One of the ninety-nine names or attributes of God.

Sūrah lix. 23: “The King, the Holy, the Peaceful, the Faithful, the Protector, the Mighty, the Absolute, the Great.”

JABĪL (جبيل‎). The Angel of the Mountains; mentioned in the Shīʿah work, Ḥayātu ʾl-Qulūb. (Merrick’s ed. p. 128.)

JĀBIR (جابر‎). The son of a poor citizen of al-Madīnah, slain at Uḥud. He embraced Islām and accompanied Muḥammad in numerous battles. He lived to a great age, for he died at al-Madīnah A.H. 78, aged 94 years.

JABR (جبر‎). A Christian servant of a family from Ḥaẓramaut—a convert to Islām—accused by the Quraish with having instructed the Prophet.

Sūrah xvi. 105: “We knew that they said, ‘It is only some mortal that teaches him.’ The tongue of him they incline towards is barbarous, this is plain Arabic.”

Ḥusain says Jabr was one of the Ahlu ʾl-Kitāb, and was well read in the Taurāt and Injīl, and Muḥammad used to hear him read these books as he passed by his house.

JACOB. Arabic Yaʿqūb (يعقوب‎). The son of Isaac; an inspired prophet. There are frequent but brief allusions to the Patriarch Jacob in the Qurʾān in connection with Abraham and Isaac. The story of his journey to Egypt will be found in the account of Joseph as given in the XIIth Sūrah of the Qurʾān. [JOSEPH.]

A brief reference to his death is made in Sūrah ii. ch. 127:—

“Were ye present when Jacob was at the point of death? when he said to his sons, ‘Whom will ye worship when I am gone?’ They said, ‘We will worship thy God and the God of thy fathers Abraham and Ismael and Isaac, one God, and to Him are we surrendered (Muslims).’ That people have now passed away; they have the reward of their deeds and ye shall have the meed of yours: but of their doings ye shall not be questioned. They say, moreover, ‘Become Jews or Christians that ye may have the true guidance.’ Say: Nay! the religion of Abraham, the sound in faith, and not one of those who join gods with God!”

JADD (جد‎). A term used in Muḥammadan law for either a paternal or a maternal grandfather. The word has also the meaning greatness, majesty, as in Sūrah lxxii. 3: “May the Majesty of our Lord be exalted.” [GRANDFATHER.]

JAʿFAR (جعفر‎). A son of Abū T̤ālib and a cousin to Muḥammad. He was a great friend to the poor, and was called by Muḥammad Abū ʾl-Masākīn, “the father of the poor.” He fell bravely at the battle of Muʾtah, A.H. 8.

JAʿFARU ʾṢ-ṢĀDIQ (جعفر الصادق‎). Abū ʿAbdi ʾllāh Jaʿfar ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAlī ibn al-Ḥusain ibn ʿAlī ibn Abī T̤ālib, was one of the twelve persons who, according to the Shīʿahs, are considered the rightful Imāms [SHIʿAH]. He was surnamed aṣ-Ṣādiq, “The Veracious,” on account of his uprightness of character. He was a learned man, and his pupil, Abū Mūsā, is said to have composed a work of two thousand pages containing the problems of his master Jaʿfaru ʾṣ-Ṣādiq. Jaʿfar was born A.H. 80, and died A.H. 148, and was buried in the cemetery al-Bakīʿ at al-Madīnah.

JĀGĪR (جاگير‎). Persian Jā, “A place;” Gīr, “Occupying.” A tenure common under the Muḥammadan Government, in which the public revenues of a given tract of land were made over to a servant of the State, together with the powers requisite to enable him to collect and appropriate such revenue, and administer the general government of the district. The assignment was either conditional or unconditional; in the former case, some public service, as the levy and maintenance of troops, or other specified duty, was engaged for; the latter was left to the entire disposal of the grantee. The assignment was either for a stated term, or, more usually, for the lifetime of the holder, lapsing, on his death, to the State, although not unusually renewed to his heir, on payment of a nazarāna or fine, and sometimes specified to be a hereditary assignment, without which specification it was held to be a life-tenure only. (Ben. Reg. xxxvii. 1723, cl. 15.) A Jāgīr was also liable to forfeiture on failure of performance of the conditions on which it was granted, or on the holder’s incurring the displeasure of the Emperor. On the other hand, in the inability of the State to vindicate its rights, a Jāgīr was sometimes converted into a perpetual and transferable estate; and the same consequence has resulted from the recognition of sundry Jāgīr as hereditary by the British Government after the extinction of the Native Governments by which they were originally granted; so that they have now come to be considered as family properties, of which the holders could not be rightfully dispossessed, and to which their legal heirs succeed, as a matter of course, without fine or nazarāna, such having been silently dispensed with. (Wilson’s Glossary of Indian Terms.)

JAHANNAM (جهنم‎). [HELL.]

JAHL (جهل‎). “Ignorance.” A term used by theologians for an ignorance of religious truths, which they say is of two kinds: Jahl-i-Basīt̤, simple ignorance; and Jahl-i-Murakkab, or complicated ignorance, or confirmed error.

JAIFAR (جيفر‎). A king of ʿUmān to whom Muḥammad sent a despatch inviting him to Islām, which event led eventually to the conversion of that province.

“On his return from the siege of Tâyif, towards the close of the eighth year of the Hegira, Mahomet sent Amru with a despatch to Jeyfar, King of Omân, summoning him and his brother to make profession of the true faith. At first they gave answer ‘that they would be the weakest among the Arabs, if they made another man possessor of their property.’ But as Amru was about to depart, they repented, and, calling him back, embraced Islâm. The people followed their example, and without demur paid their tithes to Amru, who continued till the Prophet’s death to be his representative in Omân.” (Muir’s Life of Mahomet, new ed. p. 471.)

JAIḤŪN (جيحون‎). The river Jihon, or Bactrus, said to be one of the rivers of Eden. [EDEN.]

JĀʾ-I-NAMĀZ (جاى نماز‎). Persian. “The place of prayer.” A term used in Asia for the small mat or carpet on which a Muslim prays. It is called in Arabic Sujjādah and Muṣallā.

The carpet is about five feet in length, and has a point or Qiblah worked in the pattern to mark the place for prostration.

JAIYID (جيد‎). Pure money; current coin. A term used in Muslim law. (Hidāyah, vol. iii. p. 152.)

JALĀL (جلال‎). Being glorious or mighty. Ẕū ʾl-Jalāl, “The Glorious One,” is an attribute of God. See Qurʾān, Sūrah lv. 78: “Blessed be the name of thy Lord who is possessed of glory and honour.”

Al-Jalāl is a term used by Ṣūfī mystics to express that state of the Almighty which places Him beyond the understanding of His creatures. (ʿAbdu ʾr-Razzāq’s Dictionary of Ṣūfī Terms.)

AL-JALĀLĀN (الجلالان‎). “The two Jalāls.” A term given to two commentators of the name of Jalālu ʾd-dīn, whose joint work is called the Tafsīru ʾl-Jalālain; the first half of which was compiled by the Shaik͟h Jalālu ʾd-dīn al-Maḥallī, died A.H. 864, and the rest by Jalālu ʾd-dīn as-Suyūt̤ī, died A.H. 911.

Jalālu ʾd-dīn as-Suyūt̤ī was a prolific author. Grammar, rhetoric, dogmatical and practical theology, history, criticism, medicine, and anatomy, comprise some of the subjects on which he wrote. His Itqān, which is an explanatory work on the Qurʾān, has been published by the Asiatic Society of Bengal, and edited by Dr. Sprenger (A.D. 1857), and his History of the Temple of Jerusalem has been translated by the Rev. James Reynolds for the Oriental Translation Society (A.D. 1836). [JERUSALEM.]

JAʿLU ʾL-JAUF (جعل الجوف‎). Another name for Dūmatu ʾl-Jandal, a place near Tabūk. [DUMAH.]

JĀLŪT (جالوت‎). [GOLIATH.]

JAMRAH (جمرة‎). Lit. “Gravel, or small pebbles.” (1) The three pillars at Minā, at which the Makkan pilgrims throw seven pebbles. They are known as al-Ūlā, the first; al-Wust̤ā, the middle; and al-ʿĀqibah, the last. According to Muslim writers these pillars mark the successive spots where the Devil, in the shape of an old Shaik͟h, appeared to Adam, Abraham, and Ishmael, and was driven away by the simple process which Gabriel taught them of throwing seven small pebbles. The Jamratu ʾl-ʿĀqibah, is known as the Shait̤ānu ʾl-Kabīr, or the “Great Devil.”

Captain Burton, in his El Medinah and Mecca, vol. ii. 227, says:—

“The ‘Shait̤ānu ʾl-Kabīr’ is a dwarf buttress of rude masonry, about eight feet high by two and a half broad, placed against a rough wall of stones, at the Meccan entrance to Muna. As the ceremony of ‘Ramy,’ or Lapidation, must be performed on the first day by all pilgrims between sunrise and sunset, and as the fiend was malicious enough to appear in a rugged pass, the crowd makes the place dangerous. On one side of the road, which is not forty feet broad, stood a row of shops, belonging principally to barbers. On the other side is the rugged wall of the pillar, with a chevaux de frise of Bedouins and naked boys. The narrow space was crowded with pilgrims, all struggling like drowning men to approach as near as possible to the Devil.”

(2) Jamrah also means a “live coal,” and is an astronomical or meteorological term used to signify the infusion of vital heat into the elements in spring, or rather, at the end of winter. According to this theory there are three Jamarāt: one, the infusion of heat into the air, occurs thirty days before the vernal equinox; the second, affecting the waters, seven days later; and the third, vivifying the earth, sixteen days before the equinox. (Catafago’s Dictionary, in loco.)

JAMʿU ʾL-JAMʿ (جمع الجمع‎). Lit. “The plural of a plural.” A term used by the Ṣūfī mystics for the high position of the Perfect Man or al-Insānu ʾl-Kāmil.

JANĀB (جناب‎). “Majesty.” A term of respect used in India in addressing a person of rank or office, whether Native or European. Janāb-i-ʿalī, “Your high eminence.”

JANĀBAH (جنابة‎). A state of uncleanness. The Niddoh, or separation, of Leviticus xii. 5. The menses, coitus, childbirth, pollutio nocturna, contact with the dead, or having performed the offices of nature, place the person in a state of Janābah or separation. [PURIFICATION.]

JANĀZAH, JINĀZAH (جنازة‎). A term used both for the bier, and for the funeral service of a Muslim, also for the corpse itself. [BURIAL.]

JĀNN (جان‎). The father of the Jinn. [JINN.]

JANNAH (جنة‎), pl. Jannāt. Lit. “A garden.” (1) A term used for the regions of celestial bliss. [PARADISE.] (2) A term used by Ṣūfī mystics to express different stages of the spiritual life: Jannatu ʾl-Afʿāl, the paradise of works, or that enjoyment which is derived from sensual pleasures, such as eating, drinking, &c.; Jannatu ʾl-Wirās̤ah, the paradise of inheritance, which is a disposition like that of the saints and prophets; Jannatu ʾṣ-Ṣifāt, the paradise of attributes, becoming like God; Jannatu ʾẕ-Ẕāt, the paradise of essence, being united with God (i.e. absorption into the divine essence). (ʿAbdu ʾr-Razzāq’s Dictionary of Ṣūfī Terms.)

JANNĀTU ʿADN (جنات عدن‎). The Gardens of Eden. (Sūrah ix. 73, et alias.) [PARADISE.]

JANNĀTU ʾL-FIRDAUS (جنات الفردوس‎). The Gardens of Paradise. (Sūrah xviii. 107.) [PARADISE.]

JANNATU ʾL-K͟HULD (جنة الخلد‎). The Garden of Eternity. (Sūrah xxv. 16.) [PARADISE.]

JANNĀTU ʾL-MAʾWĀ (جنات الماوى‎). The Gardens of Refuge. (Sūrah xxxii. 19.) [PARADISE.]

JANNĀTU ʾN-NAʿĪM (جنات النعيم‎). The Gardens of Delight. (Sūrah v. 70.) [PARADISE.]

JĀR MULĀṢIQ (جار ملاصق‎). “A next-door neighbour.” A term used in Muḥammadan law for a joint proprietor in a house, or room or wall of the house. (Hidāyah, vol. iii. p. 565.)

JARR (جر‎). “Dragging.” A degree of chastisement practised according to Muḥammadan law, namely, by dragging the offender to the door and exposing him to scorn. (Hamilton’s Hidāyah, vol. ii. p. 76.)

AL-JĀS̤IYAH (الجاثية‎). Lit. “The Kneeling.” A title given to the XLVth Sūrah of the Qurʾān, in which the expression occurs (verse 26):—

“And God’s is the kingdom of the Heavens and of the Earth; and on the day when the Hour shall arrive, on that day shall the despisers perish. And thou shalt see every nation kneeling; to its own book shall every nation be summoned:—‘This day shall ye be repaid as ye have wrought.’ ”

JĀS̤ULĪQ (جاثليق‎). An Arabicized word from the Greek Καθολικὸς. The Catholicos, or Primate of the Christians. In the G͟hiyās̤u ʾl-Lug͟hah he is said to be the chief of the Christians, and under him is the Mit̤rān (Metropolitan), and then the Usquf (Bishop), and then Qasīs (Presbyter), and then Shammās (Deacon).

JAẔʿAH (جذعة‎). A female camel in her fifth year. The proper age for a camel given in zakāt or legal alms for camels from sixty-one to seventy-five in number. [ZAKAT.]

JAẔBAH (جذبة‎). “Attraction.” A term used by the Ṣūfī mystics to express a yearning after the Divine Being. The nearer approach of man to his Maker through God’s grace. (ʿAbdu ʾr-Razzāq’s Dictionary of Ṣūfī Terms.)

JEDDAH. Arabic Jiddah (جدة‎). The principal seaport of Arabia, and one of the Mīqāt or stages where the Makkan pilgrims put on the Iḥrām or pilgrim’s robe. It is also celebrated as the place of Eve’s sepulchre. She is said to measure 120 paces from head to waist, and 80 paces from waist to heel. (Burton.)

JEHOVAH. Heb. ‏יְהֹוָה‎. In the Old Testament it is usually with the vowel points of ‏אֲדֹנָי‎; but when the two occur together, the former is pointed ‏יֱהֹוִה‎, that is, with the vowels of ‏אֱלֹהִים‎, as in Obad. i. 1; Heb. iii. 19. The LXX. generally render it by Κύριος, the vulgate by Dominus; and in this respect they have been followed by the A.V. where it is translated “The Lord.” The true pronunciation of this name, by which God was known to the Hebrews, has been entirely lost, the Jews themselves scrupulously avoiding every mention of it, and substituting in its stead one or other of the words with whose proper vowel-points it may happen to be written. This custom, which had its origin in reverence, and has almost degenerated into a superstition, was founded upon an erroneous rendering of Lev. xxiv. 16, “He that blasphemeth the name of God shall surely be put to death”; from which it was inferred that the mere utterance of the name constituted a capital offence. In the Rabbinical writings it is distinguished by various euphemistic expressions; as simply “the name,” or “the name of four letters” (the Greek tetragrammaton); “the great and terrible name”; “the peculiar name,” i.e. appropriated to God alone; “the separate name,” i.e. either the name which is separated or removed from human knowledge, or, as some render, “the name which has been interpreted or revealed.” (Professor W. A. Wright, M.A., Smith’s Dictionary of the Bible, in loco.)

This superstitious reverence for the word Jehovah must have been the origin of the Ismu ʾl-Aʿz̤am, or “exalted name,” which Muḥammad is related to have said was known only to God and His prophets; but which, he said, occurs in one of three verses in the Qurʾān, namely: Sūratu ʾl-Baqarah ii. 256: “God! (Allāh) there is no God but He (Hū) the Living One (al-Ḥaiy), the Self-Subsisting One (al-Qaiyūm)”; or, in the Sūratu Āli ʿImrān iii. 1, which contains the same words; or, in the Sūratu T̤ā Ḥā xx. 110: “Faces shall be humbled before the Living One (al-Ḥaiy), the Self-Subsistent One (al-Qaiyūm).”

Some European scholars (see Catafago’s Arabic Dictionary) have fancied the Yahūh ‏יהוה‎, or Yahovah of the Hebrews, is identical with the ejaculation of the Muslim devotee, Yā Hū, “O He!” (i.e. God). Al-Baiẓāwī says the word Hū (better Huwa), i.e. HE (God), may be the Ismu ʾl-Aʿz̤am, or Exalted Name of the Almighty, especially as it occurs in two of the verses of the Qurʾān indicated by Muḥammad, namely, Sūrahs ii. 256, iii. 1. [HUWA, GOD.]

JEREMIAH. Arabic Armiyā (ارميا‎). The prophet is not mentioned in the Qurʾān, but Muslim historians say he was contemporary with Maʿadd, the son of ʿAdnān, the renowned ancestor of Muḥammad. The Kātibu ʾl-Wāqidī says: “God watched over ʿAdnān’s son Maʿadd, who was by the command of the Lord taken by Armiyā and Abrak͟hā (Jeremiah and Baruch) into the land of Harram and nurtured safely.” According to the G͟hiyās̤u ʾl-Lug͟hah, he is the same as al-K͟hiẓr. [AL-KHIZR.]

JERUSALEM. Arabic al-Baitu ʾl-Muqaddas (البيت المقدس‎), “the Holy House,” or Baitu ʾl-Maqdis (بيت المقدس‎), “the House of the Sanctuary”; Aurashalīm (اورشليم‎); Iliyāʾ (ايلياء‎), i.e. Aelia Capitolina.

In the Qurʾān Jerusalem is never mentioned by name, and in the Traditions and other Muslim works, it is always called al-Baitu ʾl-Muqaddas, “the Holy House,” as referring to the Temple of Jerusalem, or Iliyāʾ. The allusions to it in the Qurʾān, are as follows:—

Sūrah ii. 55 (where God, after giving the manna and quails, is represented as saying to the children of Israel): “Enter the city and eat therefrom as plentifully as ye wish.” Al-Baiẓāwī the commentator says this city was the the Baitu ʾl-Maqdis (Jerusalem), or Arīḥā (Jericho).

Sūrah ii. 261: “Like him who passed by a city when it was desolate, and as he walked over its roofs said, ‘How will God revive this after its destruction?’” Commentators say Elias or al-K͟hiẓr visited the city of Jerusalem after its destruction by Nebuchadnezzar.

Sūrah xxx. opens with a reference to the Persians conquering Syria and taking Jerusalem.

In Sūrah xvii. 1, Muḥammad is represented as having taken his flight from Makkah to Jerusalem. “Celebrated be the praises of Him who by night took his servant from the Masjidu ʾl-Ḥarām (the Sacred Mosque) to the Masjidu ʾl-Aqṣā (the Remote Mosque), the precinct of which we have blessed.”

And in Sūrah l. 40, one of the signs of the approach of the last day will be: “The crier (to prayer) shall cry from a near place” (i.e. a place from which all men shall hear). Ḥusain says this “near place” is the Temple at Jerusalem.

A curious account of Jerusalem and its temple, the Masjidu ʾl-Aqṣā, or Distant Mosque (so called because it is a distant object of pilgrimage), has been written by Jalālu ʾd-dīn as-Suyūt̤ī, one of the commentators on the Qurʾān, known as the Jalālān. It was written in the year A.H. 848, A.D. 1444, and the special object of the book appears to be to exalt the merits of Jerusalem as a place of prayer and pilgrimage. [For an account of the Temple, see MASJIDU ʾL-AQSA.] He says Jerusalem is specially honoured as being the scene of the repentance of David and Solomon. The place where God sent His angel to Solomon, announced glad tidings to Zacharias and John, showed David a plan of the Temple, and put all the beasts of the earth and fowls of the air in subjection to him. It was at Jerusalem that the prophets sacrificed; that Jesus was born and spoke in his cradle; and it was at Jerusalem that Jesus ascended to heaven; and it will be there that He will again descend. Gog and Magog shall subdue every place on the earth but Jerusalem, and it will be there that God Almighty will destroy them. It is in the holy land of Jerusalem that Adam and Abraham, and Isaac and Mary, are buried. And in the last days there will be a general flight to Jerusalem, and the Ark and the Shechinah will be again restored to the Temple. There will all mankind be gathered at the Resurrection for judgment, and God will enter, surrounded by His angels, into the Holy Temple, when He comes to judge the earth. (See Reynolds’ Translation, p. 16.)

The peculiar reference paid to the Sacred Rock (aṣ-Ṣak͟hrah) seems to be one of the many instances of afterthought and addition to Islām since the time of Muḥammad. Muʿāwiyah seems to have encouraged it in order to direct the affections and fanaticism of his subjects into a new channel, and to withdraw their exclusive attention from Makkah and al-Madīnah, where the rival family of ʿAlī resided.

In the same book there is a desultory account of the taking of Jerusalem by the K͟halīfah ʿUmar.

After the conclusion of the battle of Yarmūk (Hieromax), the whole army of the Muslims marched into the territory of Palestine and Jordan. Then they closely besieged the city. The conquest was attended with difficulty until the arrival of the K͟halīfah ʿUmar with four thousand horse. He came upon the holy place on the eastern side, and then encircled the city. They fought for a long time, until at last the inhabitants sent a party to the walls with a flag of truce, asking for a parley. The Patriarch (Sophronius) then demanded the safe conduct of a messenger to ʿUmar. The envoy came without hindrance and requested ʿUmar to make peace and to accept tribute.

Jalālu ʾd-dīn gives a copy of the treaty which the Muslims compelled the people of Jerusalem to sign. It reads as follows:—

“In the name of God, the Merciful and Compassionate! This is the writing from the Christians of the Holy City to ʿUmar ibn al-K͟hat̤t̤āb, the Commander of the Faithful. When you came down upon us, we asked of you a capitulation for ourselves and our possessions, and our children, and the people of our religion; and we have stipulated with you, that we shall not be polluted by interruption in our places of worship, or whatever chapels, or churches, or cells, or monasteries of monks, may be therein; and that no one shall live therein who may have the impress of Muslims (by long residence), and that we will not prohibit the Muslims from entering them, by night or by day; and that we will open the gates wide to passengers and to travellers; and if any Muslim passing by shall take up his lodging with us three nights, we shall give him food, and not entertain in our churches a spy, nor conceal him unknown to the Muslims; and not teach our children the Qurʾān; and not publicly exhibit the Associating or Christian religion, and not beg any one to embrace it; and not hinder anyone of our relations from entering the Muslim religion, if he will, and that we should honour the Muslims and make much of them, and place them in our assemblies, if anyone of them will, and give them the chief seats, and not imitate them in our dress, neither in girdles, nor in the turban, nor the slipper, nor the parting of the hair, and never write in their language, nor call ourselves by their surnames; and that we should never ride upon great saddles, nor suspend our swords by belts, and never accept arms (the bow, sword, and club), nor carry them with us; and that we should never engrave upon our signet-rings in the Arabic language; and that we should not sell wine, and that we should shave the front of our heads, and tie up our dress, wherever we may be, and not wear wide girdles at our waist; and that we should never publicly exhibit the cross upon our churches, nor expose our crosses, nor ever inscribe them in the path of the Muslims, nor in their market places, and never strike our bells the (quick) stroke, nor raise our voices over the dead, nor publicly expose the lights, or anything else, in the roads and markets of the Muslims, and never come near them with our dead, and never receive any slave who has drawn upon himself familiarity with Muslims, and never look upon them in their houses.”

We learn moreover, from the same authority, as follows:—

“When ʿUmar ratified the treaty, he added thereto,—‘And that we will not strike anyone of the Muslims. We stipulate this with you for ourselves and the people of our religion; and we accept these terms of capitulation: and if we subsequently violate a point of that which we have stipulated, upon our lives be it, and let there be no faith with us and may it be allowed you to do to us whatever is lawful against rebellious and revolting subjects.’ ” (Hist. of Jerusalem, by Jalālu ʾd-dīn, Reynolds’ Translation.)

There were within the city 12,000 Greeks and 50,000 natives, and the K͟halīfah ʿUmar insisted that all the Greeks depart within three days, and that the natives should pay tribute. Five dīnārs were imposed upon the rich, four upon the middle classes, and three upon the lower classes; very old and very young persons paid nothing.

When ʿUmar entered the Holy City, his first object was to find the Sacred Rock (aṣ-Ṣak͟hrah), the site of the Masjidu ʾl-Aqṣā, to which Muḥammad said he was carried on Burāq on the night of the Miʿrāj [MIʿRAJ], and he therefore requested the Patriarch to direct him to the spot. They first went to the Church of the Resurrection, and the Patriarch said, “This is the Mosque of David.” But ʿUmar said, “Thou hast spoken falsely, for the Apostle of God (Muḥammad) described the place to me, and it was not like this.” They then went to the church on Zion, and the Patriarch said, “This is the Mosque of David.” But ʿUmar said, “Thou hast spoken falsely.” And in this manner the Patriarch took ʿUmar to every church in the city. At last they came to a gate, which is now called Bābu ʾl-Muḥammad, or the Gate of Muḥammad, and clearing away the filth on the steps, they came to a narrow passage, and the K͟halīfah, creeping on his knees, came to the central sewer. Here, standing up, ʿUmar looked at the rock (aṣ-Ṣak͟hrah), and then exclaimed, “By Him in whose hand is my life, this is the place which the Apostle of God (upon whom be peace and blessing) described to us.” ʿUmar then ordered a mosque to be built thereon. And ʿAbdu ʾl-Malik ibn Marwān built the mosque of the Baitu ʾl-Muqaddas (now known as the Mosque of ʿUmar). He spent upon it the produce of seven years’ tax upon Egypt. He began it in A.H. 69 and finished it in A.H. 72.

Some authority quoted by Jalālu ʾd-dīn says the Holy City did not cease to be in the hands of the Muslims from its surrender to ʿUmar until the year A.H. 491, when it was taken by the Franks, who killed therein a vast number of Muslims in the space of seven days. In the Masjidu ʾl-Aqṣā alone, they killed 70,000, and they took from aṣ-Ṣak͟hrah the vessels of gold and silver and the wealth which was preserved in strong boxes. “But,” he adds, “Ṣalāḥu ʾd-dīn (Saladin) was raised up for the complete deliverance of the Holy City; for he was the most renowned of Lions, and the very brightness of Fire.”

(For a further account of the taking of the city by Saladin, see Reynolds’ translation of Jalālu ʾd-dīn’s History of the Temple of Jerusalem, p. 199.)

A brief outline of the History of Jerusalem from the Time of Christ.

[AS-SAKHRAH, MASJIDU ʾL-AQSA.]