ṢAḤĪḤU MUSLIM (صحيح مسلم). The title of the second of the Kutubu ʾs-Sittah, or “six correct” books of the traditions received by the Sunnīs. It was compiled by Abū ʾl-Ḥusain Muslim ibn al-Ḥajjāj al-Qushairī, who was born at Naishāpūr, A.H. 204, and died A.H. 261. The collection contains 7,275 traditions, of which, it is said, 4,000 are of undisputed authority. The books and chapters of the work were not arranged by the compiler, but by his disciples. The most celebrated edition of this work is that with a commentary by Muḥyiyu ʾd-dīn Yaḥyā an-Nawawī, who died A.H. 676. [TRADITIONS.]
SAHM (سهم). Lit. “An arrow used for drawing lots.” A term in Muḥammadan law for a portion of an estate allotted to an heir. (Hamilton’s Hidāyah, vol. iv. p. 487.)
SAḤŪR (سحور). The meal which is taken before the dawn of day during the Ramaẓān. It is called in Persian T̤aʿām-i-Saḥarī. In Hindūstānī, Sahārgāhī. In Pushto Peshmani. [RAMAZAN.]
SĀʾIBAH (سائبة). Anything set at liberty, as a slave, or she-camel, and devoted to an idol. Mentioned once in the Qurʾān, Sūrah v. 102: “God hath not ordained anything on the subject of sāʾibah, but the unbelievers have invented it.”
SAʿĪD IBN ZAID (سعيد بن زيد). A Ṣaḥābī who embraced Islām in his youth. He was present with Muḥammad in all his engagements except at Badr. He is held to be one of the ʿAsharah Mubashsharah, or ten patriarchs of the Muslim faith. Died at ʿAqīq, A.H. 51, aged 79.
SAIFU ʾLLĀH (سيف الله). “The Sword of God.” A title given by Muḥammad to the celebrated General K͟halīd ibn al-Walīd. (Mishkāt, book xxiv. ch. viii.)
SAIḤŪN (سيحون). The river Jaxartes. Said to have been one of the rivers of Eden. [EDEN.]
SAINTS. In Muḥammadan countries, reputed saints are very numerous. Very many religious leaders obtain a great reputation for sanctity even before their deaths, but after death it is usual for the followers of any well-known religious teacher to erect a shrine over his grave, to light it up on Thursdays, and thus establish a saintly reputation for their departed guide. Very disreputable persons are thus often reckoned to have died in the “odour of sanctity.” At Hasan Abdal in the Punjab (celebrated in the story of Lala Rookh), there is a shrine erected over a departed cook, who for many years lived on his peculations as keeper of the staging bungalow. When he died, about ten years ago, his family erected over his remains a shrine of some pretensions, which even in the present generation is an object of devout reverence, but which, in the next, will be the scene of reputed miracles. This is but an example of many thousands of shrines and saintly reputations easily gained throughout Islām.
It is generally asserted that according to the teachings of Islām, the Prophets (ambiyāʾ) were without sin, but there is a tradition, related by Anas, which distinctly asserts the contrary, and states that Muḥammad not only admitted his own sinfulness, but also the fall of Adam, the murder committed by Moses, and the three lies told by Abraham. (See Mishkāt, book xxiii. ch. xii.) But it is very remarkable that, according to this Ḥadīs̤, Muḥammad does not charge Jesus Christ with having committed sin. The immaculate conception and the sinlessness of Christ are admitted doctrines of Islām. [JESUS CHRIST.]
The terms pīr and walī are common titles for those who, by reputed miracles and an ascetic life, have established a reputation for sanctity, for whom in Persian the title buzurg is generally used. The titles qut̤b and g͟haus̤ are very high orders of sanctity, whilst zāhid and ʿābid are employed for persons who devote their lives to religious contemplation and worship.
The Ṣūfīs use the word sālik, “pilgrim” or “traveller,” for one who has renounced the world for the “path” of mysticism, whilst faqīr is a title of more general application to one who is poor in the sight of God. Shaik͟h and mīr, used for old men, also express a degree of reputation in the religious world; shaik͟h (in India) being a title generally conferred on a convert from Hinduism to Islām. Saiyid, or “lord,” is a title always given to the descendants of Muḥammad, mīr being sometimes used for the same. Miyān, “master” or “friend,” is generally used for the descendants of celebrated saints, or as a mere title of respect.
SAʿĪR (سعير). “A flaming fire.” The special place of torment appointed for the Sabeans. (See al-Bag͟hawī’s Commentary on the Qurʾān.) It occurs sixteen times in the Qurʾān (Sūrah iv. 11, and fifteen other places), where it does not seem to be applied to any special class.
S̤AIYIBAH (ثيبة). A legal term for a woman who departs from her husband, whether through divorce or the death of her husband, after the first connection.
SAIYID (سيد). A term used for the descendants of Muḥammad from his daughter Fāt̤imah by ʿAlī. The word only occurs twice in the Qurʾān—in Sūrah iii. 34, where it is used for John Baptist; and in Sūrah xii. 25, where it stands for the husband of Zalīk͟hah. According to the Majmu ʾl-Biḥār, p. 151, it means “lord, king, exalted, saint, merciful, meek, husband,” &c.
There are two branches of Saiyids—those descended from al-Ḥasan and those descended from al-Ḥusain (both the sons of ʿAlī.)
These descendants of Muḥammad are prayed for at every period of the daily prayers [PRAYERS], and they are held in all Muḥammadan countries in the highest respect, however poor or degraded their position may be.
The term Saiyid is also given as a name to persons who are not descended from Muḥammad, e.g. Saiyid Shāh, Saiyid Amīn, &c., although it is a mere assumption. In addition to the term Saiyid, the term Bādshāh, Shāh, Mīr, and Sharīf, are applied to those descended from Bībī Fāt̤imah.
The author of the Ak͟hlāq-i-Jalālī estimated in his day the descendants of Muḥammad to be not less than 200,000.
SAJDAH (سجدة), vulg. sijdah. Lit. “Prostration.”
(1) The act of worship in which the person’s forehead touches the ground in prostration. [PRAYER.]
(2) As-Sajdah, the title of the XXXIInd Sūrah of the Qurʾān, in the 15th verse of which the word occurs: “They only believe in our signs who, when they are reminded of them, fall down adoring and celebrate the praises of their Lord.”
SAJDATU ʾS-SAHW (سجدة السهو). “The prostrations of forgetfulness.” Two prostrations made on account of forgetfulness or inattention in prayer. Muḥammad said, “When any of you stand up for prayer, and the devil comes to you and casts doubt and perplexity into your mind, so that you do not know how many rakʿahs you have recited, then prostrate yourself twice.
SAJDATU ʾSH-SHUKR (سجدة الشكر). “A prostration of thanksgiving.” When a Muslim has received some benefit or blessing, he is enjoined to make a prostration in the direction of Makkah, and say, “Holiness to God! and Praise be to God. There is no deity but God! God is most Great!” (Raddu ʾl-Muḥtār, vol i. p. 816.)
ṢAK͟HR (صخر). The jinn or devil who is said to have obtained possession of Solomon’s magic ring, and to have personated the King for forty days, when Ṣak͟hr flew away and threw the ring into the sea, where it was swallowed by a fish, which was afterwards caught and brought to Solomon, who by this means recovered his kingdom.
AṢ-ṢAK͟HRAH (الصخرة). “The Rock.” The sacred rock at Jerusalem on which the Temple was erected, and on which now stands the Qubbatu ʾṣ-Ṣak͟hrah, the “Dome of the Rock,” known to English readers as the Mosque of ʿUmar. This rock is said to have come from Paradise, and to be the foundation-stone of the world, to have been the place of prayer of all prophets, and, next to the Kaʿbah, the most sacred spot in the universe. Imām Jalālu ʾd-dīn as-Suyūt̤ī, in his history of the Temple of Jerusalem (Reynolds’ edition, p. 44), gives the following traditional account of the glorious Ṣak͟hrah.
“We are informed by Ibn al-Manṣūr that the Rock of the Baitu ʾl-Muqaddas, in the days of Solomon, was of the height of twelve thousand cubits; each cubit at that time being the full cubit, viz. one modern cubit, one span and one hand-breadth. Upon it also was a chapel, formed of aloes (or sandal) wood, in height twelve miles (sic); also above this was a network of gold, between two eyelet-beads of pearl and ruby, netted by the women of Balka in the night, which net was to serve for three days; also the people of Emmaus were under the shadow of the chapel when the sun rose and the people of Baitu ʾr-Raḥmah when it set, and even others of the valleys were under its shadow; also upon it was a jacinth (or ruby), which shone in the night like the light of the sun; but when the light began to dawn its brilliancy was obscured; nor did all these cease until Nebuchadnezzar laid all waste, and seized whatever he found there, and carried it into Greece.
THE DOME OF THE ROCK. (Conder.)
“Again, by a tradition we learn that the Ṣak͟hrah of Baitu ʾl-Muqaddas was raised aloft into the sky, to the height of twelve miles, and the space between it and heaven was no more than twelve miles. All this remained in the same state until Greece (or Rome) obtained the mastery over it, subsequent to its devastation by Nebuchadnezzar. But when the Greeks obtained possession of it, they said, “Let us build thereupon a building far excelling that which was there before.” Therefore they built upon it a building as broad at the base as it was high in the sky, and gilded it with gold, and silvered it with silver. Then, entering therein, they began to practise their associating Paganism, upon which it turned upside-down over them, so that not one of them came out.
“Therefore, when the Grecian (king) saw this, he summoned the Patriarch and his ministers (deacons), and the chiefs of Greece, and said, ‘What think ye?’ who replied, ‘We are of opinion that our idol-gods are not well pleased, and therefore will not receive us favourably.’ Hereupon he commanded a second temple to be built, which they did, spending a great sum thereon, and having finished the second building, seventy thousand entered it as they had entered the first. But it happened to them as it had happened to the first; when they began their Paganism it turned over upon them. Now their king was not with them. Therefore, when he saw this, he assembled them a third time, and said unto them, ‘What think ye?’ who said, ‘We think that our Lord is not well pleased with us, because we have not offered unto him abundantly; therefore he has destroyed what we have done, therefore we should greatly wish to build a third.’ They then built a third, until they thought they had carried it to the greatest possible height, which having done, he assembled the Christians, and said unto them, ‘Do ye observe any defect?’ who said, ‘None, except that we must surround it with crosses of gold and silver.’ Then all the people entered it, to read and cite (sacred things). Having bathed and perfumed themselves, and having entered it, they began to practise their associating Paganism, as the others had done before them; whereupon down fell the third building upon them. Hereupon the king again summoned them together, and asked their counsel about what he should do. But their dread was very great; and whilst they were deliberating, there came up to them a very old man, in a white robe and a black turban; his back was bent double and he was leaning upon a staff. So he said, ‘O Christian people, listen to me! listen to me! for I am the oldest of any of you in years, and have now come forth from among the retired votaries of religion, in order to inform you that, with respect to this place, all its possessors are accursed, and all holiness hath departed from it, and hath been transferred to this (other) place. I will therefore point out this as the place wherein to build the Church of the Resurrection. I will show you the spot, but you will never see me after this day, for ever. Do, therefore, with a good will that which I shall tell you.’ Thus he cheated them, and augmented their accursed state, and commanded them to cut up the rock, and to build with its stones upon the place which he commended them.
“So whilst he was talking with them he became concealed; and they saw him no more. Thereupon they increased in their infidelity, and said, ‘This is the Great Word. Then they demolished the Mosques, and carried away the columns and the stones, and all the rest, and built therewith the Church of the Resurrection, and the church which is in the valley of Hinnon. Moreover, this cursed old man commanded them, ‘When ye have finished their building upon this place, then take that place whose owners are accursed, and whence all holiness hath departed, to be a common sewer to receive your dung.’ By this they gratified their Lord. Also they did this, as follows: At certain seasons, all the filth and excrement was sent in vessels from Constantinople, and was at a certain time all thrown upon the Rock, until God awoke our Prophet Muḥammad (the peace and blessing of God be with him!), and brought him by night thereunto; which he did on account of its peculiar consecration, and on account of the greatness of its super-excellence. We learn, also, that God, on the Day of Judgment, will change the Ṣak͟hrah into white coral, enlarging it to extend over heaven and earth. Then shall men go from that Rock to heaven or hell, according to that great word, ‘There shall be a time when this earth shall change into another earth, and the heaven shall turn white; the soil shall be of silver; no pollution shall ever dwell thereon.’ Now from ʿĀʾish (may the satisfying favour of God rest upon him!), I said, ‘O apostle of God, on that day when this earth shall become another earth, and this sky shall change, where shall men be on that day?’ He replied, ‘Upon the bridge aṣ-Ṣirāt̤.’ Again, a certain divine says, ‘that in the Law, God says to the Rock of the Holy Abode, “Thou art my seat; thou art near to me; from thy foundation have I raised up the heavens, and from beneath thee have I stretched forth the earth, and all the distant inaccessible mountains are beneath thee. Who dies within thee is as if he died within the world of heaven, and who dies around thee is as if he died within thee. Days and nights shall not cease to succeed, until I send down upon thee a Light of Heaven, which shall obliterate all the (traces) of the infidels of the sons of Adam, and all their footsteps. Also I will send upon thee the hierarchy of angels and prophets; and I will wash thee until I leave thee like milk; and I will fix upon thee a wall twelve miles above the thick-gathering clouds of earth, and also a hedge of light. By my hand will I insure to thee thy support and thy virtue; upon thee will I cause to descend my spirits and my angels, to worship within thee; nor shall any one of the sons of Adam enter within thee until the Day of Judgment. And whosoever shall look upon this chapel from afar shall say, ‘Blessed be the face of him who devoutly worships and adores in thee!’ Upon thee will I place walls of light and a hedge of thick clouds—five walls of ruby and pearl.” ’ Also from the Book of Psalms, ‘Great and glorious art thou, thou threshing-floor! Unto thee shall be the general assemblage: from thee shall all men rise from death.’ Moreover, from the same author, God says to the Rock of the Holy Abode, ‘Who loveth thee, him will I love; who loveth thee, loveth me; who hateth thee, him will I hate. From year to year my eyes are upon thee, nor will I forget thee until I forget my eyes. Whoso prayeth within thee two rakʿahs, him will I cause to cast off all his sins, and to be as guiltless as I brought him from his mother’s womb, unless he return to his sins, beginning them afresh.’ This is also a tradition of old standing: ‘I solemnly engage and promise to everyone who dwells therein, that all the days of his life the bread of corn and olive-oil never shall fail him; nor shall the days and the nights fail to bring that time, when, out of the supremacy of my bounty, I will cause to descend upon thee the assemblage of man for judgment—the whole company of risen mortals.’ There is a tradition that ‘Muqātil Ibn Sulaiman came to this Temple to pray, and sat by the gate looking towards the Rock; and we had assembled there in great numbers; he was reading and we were listening. Then came forward ʿAlī Ibn al-Badawī, stamping terribly with his slippers upon the pavement. This greatly afflicted him, and he said to those around him, “Make an opening for me.” Then the people opened on each side, and he made a threatening motion with his hand to warn him and prevent this stamping, saying, “Tread more gently! That place at which Muqātil is”—pointing with his hand—“and on which thou art stamping, is the very place redolent of Heaven’s breezes; and there is not a spot all around it—not a spot within its precincts a hand’s-breadth square—wherein some commissioned prophet, some near angel, hath not prayed.” ’ Now from the mother of ʿAbdu ʾllāh, daughter of K͟hālid, from her mother, ‘the moment is surely fixed, when the Kaʿbah shall be led as a bride to the Ṣak͟hrah, and shall hang upon her all her pilgrimage merits, and become her turban.’ Also it is said that the Ṣak͟hrah is the middle of the Mosque; it is cut off from every touching substance on all sides. No one supports it but He who supports and holds up the sky; so that nothing falls thence but by His good permission; also upon the upper part of the west side stood the Prophet (the blessing and peace of God be with him!) on the night when he rode al-Burāq. This side began to shake about, from veneration of him; and upon the other side are the marks of the angels’ fingers, who held it up when it shook; beneath it is a deep hole cut out on each side, over which is the gate opened to men for prayer and devotion. ‘I resolved,’ says a certain author, ‘one day to enter it, in great fear lest it should fall upon me, on account of the sins I had contracted; then, however, I looked, and saw its darkness, and some holy pilgrims entering it at the darkest part, who came forth therefrom quite free from sin. Then I began to reflect upon entering. Then I said, “Perhaps they entered very slowly and leisurely, and I was too much in a hurry; a little delay may facilitate the matter.” So I made up my mind to enter; and entering, I saw the Wonder of Wonders, the Rock supported in its position or course on every side; for I saw it separated from the earth, so that no point of the earth touched it. Some of the sides were separated by a wider interval than others; also, the mark of the glorious Foot is at present in a stone divided from the Rock, right over against it, on the other side, west of the Qiblah; it is upon a pillar. Also the Rock is now almost abutting upon the side of the crypt, only divided from it by that space which allows room for the gate of the crypt, on the side of the Qiblah. This gate, also, is disjointed from the base of the Qiblah; it is between the two. Below the gate of the crypt is a stone staircase, whereby one may descend into the crypt. In the midst of this crypt is a dark-brown leather carpet, upon which pilgrims stand when they visit the foundation of the Rock; it is upon the eastern side. There are also columns of marble abutting on the lower side upon the path of the rows of trees upon the side of the Qiblah, and on the other side forming buttresses to the extremity of the Rock; these are to hinder it from shaking on the side of the Qiblah. There are buildings besides these. There is a building in the Chapel of the Rock. Beneath the chapel, the spot marked by the angels’ fingers is in the Rock, on the western side, divided from the print of the glorious Foot above-mentioned, very near to it, over against the western gate, at the end.’ ” (Hist. Jerusalem, from the Arabic MS. of Jalālu ʾd-dīn as-Suyūt̤ī, Reynolds’ ed. 1835.)
Dr. Robinson (Biblical Researches, vol. i. p. 297) says the followers of Muḥammad under ʿUmar took possession of the Holy City A.D. 636, and the K͟halīfah determined to erect a mosque upon the site of the Jewish Temple. An account of this undertaking, as given by Muslim historians, will be found in the article on JERUSALEM. The historians of the crusades all speak of this great Ṣak͟hrah as the Templum Domini, and describe its form and the rock within it. (Will. Tyr., 8, 2, ib. 12, 7. Jac. de Vitriac, c. 62.)
Lieut. E. R. Conder, R.E., remarks that the Dome of the Rock belongs to that obscure period of Saracenic art, when the Arabs had not yet created an architectural style of their own, and when they were in the habit of employing Byzantine architects to build their mosques. The Dome of the Rock, Lieut. Conder says, is not a mosque, as it is sometimes wrongly called, but a “station” in the outer court of the Masjidu ʾl-Aqṣā.
We are indebted to this writer for the following account of the gradual growth of the present building (Tent Work in Palestine, vol. ii. p. 320):—
“In A.D. 831 the Caliph El Mamûn restored the Dome of the Rock, and, if I am correct, enclosed it with an outer wall, and gave it its present appearance. The beams in the roof of the arcade bear, as above-stated, the date 913 A.D.; a well-carved wooden cornice, hidden by the present ceiling, must then have been visible beneath them.
“In 1016 A.D. the building was partly destroyed by earthquake. To this date belong restorations of the original mosaics in the dome, as evidenced by inscriptions. The present wood-work of the cupola was erected by Husein, son of the Sultan Hakem, as shown by an inscription dated 1022 A.D.
“The place next fell into the hands of the Crusaders, who christened it Templum Domini, and established in 1112 A.D. a chapter of Canons.
“The Holy Rock was then cut into its present shape and covered with marble slabs, an altar being erected on it. The works were carried on from 1115 A.D. to 1136 A.D. The beautiful iron grille between the pillars of the dome and various fragments of carved work are of this date, including small altars with sculptured capitals, having heads upon them—abominations to the Moslem, yet still preserved within the precincts. The interior of the outer wall was decorated in the twelfth century with frescoes, traces of which still remain. The exterior of the same wall is surmounted by a parapet, with dwarf pillars and arches, which is first mentioned by John of Wurtzburg, but must be as old as the round arches of the windows below. The Crusaders would seem to have filled up the parapet arches, and to have ornamented the whole with glass mosaic, as at Bethlehem.
“In 1187 A.D. Saladin won the city, tore up the altar, and once more exposed the bare rock, covered up the frescoes with marble slabs, and restored and regilded the dome, as evidenced by an inscription in it dating 1189 A.D.
“In 1318 A.D. the lead outside and the gilding within were restored by Nakr ed Din, as evidenced by an inscription.
“In 1520 A.D. the Sultan Soliman cased the bases and upper blocks of the columns with marble. The wooden cornice, attached to the beam between the pillars, seems to be of this period, and the slightly-pointed marble casing of the arches under the dome is probably of the same date. The windows bear inscriptions of 1528 A.D. The whole exterior was at this time covered with Kishâni tiles, attached by copper hooks, as evidenced by inscriptions dated 1561 A.D. The doors were restored in 1564 A.D., as also shown by inscriptions.
“The date of the beautiful wooden ceiling of the cloisters is not known, but it partly covers the Cufic inscription, and this dates 72 A.H. (688 A.D.), and it hides the wooden cornice, dating probably 913 A.D. The ceiling is therefore probably of the time of Soliman.
“In 1830 A.D. the Sultan Mahmud, and in 1873–75 A.D. the late ʿAbdu ʾl-ʿAzīz, repaired the Dome, and the latter period was one specially valuable for those who wished to study the history of the place.
“Such is a plain statement of the gradual growth of the building. The dates of the various inscriptions on the walls fully agree with the circumstantial accounts of the Arab writers who describe the Dome of the Rock.” [JERUSALEM.]
SAKĪNAH (سكينة). A word which occurs in the Qurʾān five times. (1) For that which was in the Ark of the Covenant, Sūrah ii. 249: “The sign of his (Saul’s) kingdom is that there shall come to you the Ark (Tābūt) with the sakīnah in it from your Lord, and the relics that the family of Moses and the family of Aaron left, and the angels bear it.” With reference to this verse, al-Baiẓāwī, the great Muslim commentator, says: “The ark here mentioned is the box containing the Books of Moses (Arabic Taurāt, namely, the Torah, or Law), which was made of box-wood and gilded over with gold, and was three cubits long and two wide, and in it was ‘the sakīnah from your Lord.’ The meaning of which is, that with the Ark there was tranquillity and peace, namely, the Taurāt (Books of Moses), because when Moses went forth to war he always took the Ark with him, which gave repose to the hearts of the children of Israel. But some say that within that Ark there was an idol made either of emerald or sapphire, with the head and tail of a cat, and with two wings; and that this creature made a noise when the Ark was carried forth to war. But others say that the Ark contained images of the prophets, from Adam to Moses. Others assert that the meaning of sakīnah is ‘knowledge and sincerity.’ Others, that the Ark contained the tables of the Law, the rod of Moses, and Aaron’s turban.” (Tafsīru ʾl-Baiẓāwī, Fleischer’s ed., vol. ii. p. 128.)
(2) It is also used in the Qurʾān for help and confidence or grace. Sūrah xlviii. 26: “When those who misbelieved put in their hearts pique—the pique of ignorance—and God sent down His Sakīnah upon His Apostle and upon the believers, and obliged them to keep to the word of piety.” Al-Baiẓāwī says that in this verse the word sakīnah means the tranquillity and repose of the soul, which is the meaning given in all Arabic dictionaries.
The word occurs in three other places in a similar sense:—
Sūrah ix. 26: “God sent down His Sakīnah upon His Apostle and upon the believers, and sent down armies which ye could not see, and punished those who did not believe.”
Sūrah ix. 40: “God sent down His Sakīnah upon him, and aided him with hosts.”
Sūrah xlviii. 2: “It is He who sent down the sakīnah into the hearts of believers, that they might have faith added to faith.”
None of the Muslim commentators seem to understand that the Arabic سكينة Sakīnah is identical with the Hebrew שְׁכִינָה Shechinah, a term which, although not found in the Bible, has been used by the later Jews, and borrowed by the Christians from them, to express the visible Majesty of the Divine Presence, especially when resting or dwelling between the Cherubim on the Mercy Seat in the Tabernacle, and in the Temple of Solomon. Rabbinical writers identify the Shechinah with the Holy Spirit, and some Christian writers have thought that the three-fold expression for the Deity—the Lord, the Word of the Lord, and the Shechinah—indicates the knowledge of a trinity of persons in the God-head.
For the Talmudic views regarding the Shechinah, the English reader can refer to Dr. Hershon’s Talmudic Miscellany (Trübner & Co., London).
SALAF (سلف). (1) Ancestors; men of repute for piety and faith in past generations.
(2) Money lent without interest. [SALAM.]
SALAM (سلم). A contract involving an immediate payment of the price, and admitting a delay in the delivery of the articles purchased. The word used in the Ḥadīs̤ is generally salaf. In a sale of this kind, the seller is called musallam ilai-hi; the purchaser, rabbu ʾs-salam, and the goods purchased, musallam-fī-hi. (Kitābu ʾt-Taʿrīfāt.)
AS-SALĀM (الــســلام). “The Peace(ful) one.” (1) One of the ninety-nine names or attributes of God. It occurs once in the Qurʾān, Sūrah lix. 20: “He is God, than whom there is no other … the Peaceful.” Al-Baiẓāwī explains the word as “He who is free from all loss or harm” (ذو السلامة من كل نقص و آفة).
(2) As-Salāmu ʿalai-kum (السلام عليكم), “The peace be on you,” the common salutation amongst Muslims. [SALUTATION.]
AṢ-ṢALĀT (الصلوة, in construction frequently spelled صلاة), pl. ṣalawāt. The term used in the Qurʾān, as well as amongst all Muslims in every part of the world, for the liturgical form of prayer, which is recited five times a day, an account of which is given in the article on PRAYER. Its equivalent in Persian and Urdū is namāz, which has been corrupted into nmūz by the Afghāns. The word occurs with this meaning in the Qurʾān, Sūrah ii. 239: “Observe the prayers,” and in very many other places. It has also the meaning of prayer or supplication in its general sense, e.g. Sūrah ix. 104: “Pray for them, of a truth thy prayers shall assure their minds.” Also blessing, e.g. Sūrah xxxiii. 56: “Verily God and His Angels bless (not “pray for,” as rendered by Palmer) the Prophet.” (See Lane’s Dictionary, in loco.)
The word ṣalāt occurs with various combinations used to express different periods, and also special occasions of prayer.
The five stated liturgical prayers which are held to be of divine institution:—
(1) Ṣalātu ʾl-Z̤uhr, the meridian prayer.
(2) Ṣalātu ʾl-ʿAṣr, the afternoon prayer.
(3) Ṣalātu ʾl-Mag͟hrib, the sunset prayer.
(4) Ṣalātu ʾl-ʿIshāʾ, the night prayer.
(5) Ṣalātu ʾl-Fajr, the prayer at dawn.
(Obs. The midday prayer is reckoned the first in order.)
Also for the three voluntary daily liturgical prayers:—
(1) Ṣalātu ʾl-Ishrāq, when the sun has well risen.
(2) Ṣalātu ʾl-Ẓuḥā, about 11 A.M.
(3) Ṣalātu ʾl-Tahajjud, after midnight.
Liturgical prayers said on special occasions are given below. [PRAYER.]
ṢALĀTU ʾL-ḤĀJAH (صلاة الحاجة). “Prayer of necessity.” Four rakʿah prayers, or, according to some, twelve rakʿahs recited after the night prayer in times of necessity, or trouble. (Raddu ʾl-Muḥtār, vol. i. p. 719.)
ṢALĀTU ʾL-ʿĪDAIN (صلاة العيدين). “Prayers of the two festivals.” The two rakʿah prayers recited on the two Muḥammadan festivals, the ʿĪdu ʾl-Fit̤r and the ʿĪdu ʾl-Aẓḥā.
ṢALĀTU ʾL-ISTIK͟HĀRAH (صلاة الاستخارة). Lit. “Prayer for conciliating favour.” Two rakʿahs recited for success in an undertaking. Jābir relates that Muḥammad taught him Istik͟hārah, and that after reciting two rakʿahs he should thus supplicate God: “O God, I seek Thy good help in Thy great wisdom. I pray for ability to act through Thy power. I ask this thing of thy goodness. Thou knowest, but I know not. Thou art powerful, but I am not. Thou art knower of secrets. O God, if Thou knowest that the matter which I am about to undertake is good for my religion, for my life, for my future, then make it easy, and prosper me in it. But if it is bad for my religion, my life, and my future, then put it away from me, and show me what is good.” (Mishkāt, book iv. 40.)
ṢALĀTU ʾL-ISTISQĀʾ (صلاة الاستسقاء), from saqy, “Watering.” Two rakʿah prayers recited in the time of dearth.
ṢALĀTU ʾL-JINĀZAH (صلاة الجــنــازة). The funeral service. [BURIAL OF THE DEAD, JINAZAH.]
ṢALĀTU ʾL-K͟HAUF (صلاة الخوف). The “Prayers of Fear.” Two rakʿahs of prayers recited first by one regiment and then by another in time of war, when the usual prayers cannot be recited for fear of the enemy. These prayers are founded upon an injunction in the Qurʾān, Sūrah iv. 102: “And when ye go to war in the land, it shall be no sin for you to curtail your prayers, if ye fear that the enemy come upon you.” This was also the Talmudic law (Tr. Berachoth iv. 4): “He that goeth in a dangerous place may pray a short prayer.”
ṢALĀTU ʾL-KUSŪF (صلاة الكسوف). Prayers at an eclipse of the sun, consisting of two rakʿahs of prayer. (Mishkāt, book iv. ch. li.)
ṢALĀTU ʾL-MARĪẒ (صلاة المريض). “Prayer of the sick.” When a person is too sick to stand up in the usual prayers, he is allowed to recite them either in a reclining or sitting posture, provided he performs the usual ablutions. It is ruled that he shall in such a case make the prostrations, &c., mentally. (Raddu ʾl-Muḥtār, vol. i. p. 891.)
ṢALĀTU ʾL-WITR (صلاة الوتر). The Witr prayers. The word witr means either a unit, or an odd number, and is used for either a single or odd number of rakʿah prayers recited after the evening prayer (ʿishāʾ). (Mishkāt, book iv. ch. xxxvi.)
There is considerable controversy amongst the learned doctors as to whether it is farẓ, wājib, or sunnah, but it is generally held to be sunnah, i.e. founded on the example of the Prophet, but with no divine command. Amongst the Ḥanafī sect, it is also known as Qunūtu ʾl-Witr, but the Shāfiʿīs recite the Qunūt separately.
ṢALĀTU ʾR-RAG͟HĀʾIB (صلاة الرغائب). “A prayer for things desired.” Two rakʿah prayers recited by one who desires some object in this world. According to the orthodox, it is forbidden in Islām. (Raddu ʾl-Muḥtār, vol. i. p. 717.) It is recited by some persons in the first week of the month Rajab.
ṢALĀTU ʾS-SAFAR (صلاة السفر). “Prayers of travel.” A shortened recital of prayer allowed to travellers. It is founded on a tradition by Yaʿla ibn Umaiyah, who says, “I said to ʿUmar, ‘God hath said, “When ye go to war in the land, it shall be no sin for you to shorten your prayers if ye fear that the infidels may attack you”; but now verily we are safe in this journey, and yet we shorten our prayers.’ ʿUmar replied, ‘I also wondered at the thing that astonished you; but the Prophet said, God hath done you a kindness in curtailing your prayers, therefore accept it.’ Ibn ʿUmar says, ‘I travelled with the Prophet, and he did not say more than two rakʿahs of prayer, and Abū Bakr and ʿUmar and ʿUs̤mān did the same.’ Ibn ʿAbbās says, ‘The Prophet used to say on a journey the noon and afternoon prayer together, and the sunset and evening prayer together.’ ” (Mishkāt, book iv. ch. xlii.)
The established prayers for a traveller are, therefore, two rakʿahs instead of the four farẓ rakʿahs at the noon and afternoon and evening prayers, and the usual two farẓ at the morning and the usual three farẓ at the sunset prayers; all voluntary prayers being omitted. (Raddu ʾl-Muḥtār, vol. i. p. 821.)