MĪQĀT (ميقات‎). Lit. “A stated time, or place.” The stations at which Makkan pilgrims assume the iḥrām or “pilgrim’s garment.” Five of these stations were established by Muḥammad (Mishkāt, book xi. ch. i. pt. 1), and the sixth has been added since to suit the convenience of travellers from the East. They are as follows: (1) Ẕū ʾl-Ḥulafāʾ, for the pilgrims from al-Madīnah; (2) Juḥfah, for Syria; (3) Qarnu ʾl-Manāzil, for Najd; (4) Yaulamlam, for Yaman; (5) Ẕāt-i-ʿIrāq, for ʿIrāq; (6) Ibrahīm Mursīa, for those who arrive by sea from India and the east.

The putting on of the iḥrām at Jerusalem is highly meritorious, according to a tradition, which says, “The Prophet said, Whoever wears the iḥrām for ḥajj or ʿumrah, from the Masjidu ʾl-Aqṣā (i.e. the Temple at Jerusalem) to the Masjidu ʾl-Ḥarām, shall be forgiven for all his past and future sins.” (Mishkāt, book xi. ch. i. pt. 2.)

MĪR (مير‎). A title of respect used for the descendants of celebrated Muḥammadan saints. More generally used for Saiyids, or descendants of Fāt̤imah, the Prophet’s daughter.

MIRACLES. Supernatural powers given to men are spoken of by Muslim lexicographers as k͟hāriqu ʾl-ʿādat (خارق العادة‎), or “things contrary to custom.” In Muslim theology, they are expressed by eight terms: (1) Āyah (اية‎), pl. āyāt, “a sign”; the only word used in the Qurʾān for a miracle (see Sūrahs xiii. 27; xxix. 49; liv. 2). (2) Muʿjizah (معجزة‎), pl. muʿjizāt, “making weak or feeble,” or that which renders the adversaries to the truth weak and feeble; a term used only for miracles performed by prophets. (3) Irhāṣ (ارهاص‎), pl. irhāṣāt, lit. “laying a foundation”; used for any miracle performed by a prophet before his assumption of the prophetical office. (4) ʿAlāmah (علامة‎), pl. ʿalāmāt, “a sign,” the same as āyah, and used for the signs of the coming Resurrection. (5) Karāmah (كرامة‎), pl. karāmāt, lit. “beneficence”; wonders wrought by saints for the good of the people as well as in proof of their own saintship. (6) Maʿūnah (معونة‎), pl. maʿwanāt, lit. “help or assistance;” used also for the wonders wrought by saints. (7) Istidrāj (استدراج‎), lit. “promoting by degrees”; a term employed to express the miracles wrought by the assistance of the Devil with the permission of God. (8) Ihānah (اهانة‎), pl. ihānāt, lit. “contempt”; miracles wrought by the assistance of the Devil, but when they turn out to the disdain and contempt of the worker.

It does not appear from the Qurʾān that Muḥammad ever claimed the power of working miracles, but, on the contrary, he asserted that it was not his mission to work signs and wonders in proof of his apostleship. This seems to be evident from the following verses in the Qurʾān:—

Sūrah xxix. 49: “They say, Why are not signs (āyāt) sent down to him from his Lord? Say: Signs are in the power of God alone, and I am only an open warner.”

Sūrah xiii. 27–30: “And they who believe not say, Why is not a sign (āyah) sent down to him from his Lord? Say: God truly misleadeth whom He will, and guideth to Himself him who turneth to Him.… If there were a Qurʾān by which the mountains would be set in motion, or the earth cleft by it, or the dead be addressed by it, they would not believe.”

Sūrah xvii. 92–97: “And they say, By no means will we believe in thee till thou cause a fountain to gush forth for us from the earth, or till thou have a garden of palm trees and grapes, and thou cause gushing rivers to gush forth in its midst, or till thou make heaven to fall upon us, as thou hast given out in pieces; or thou bring God and the angels to vouch for thee; or thou have a house of God, or thou mount up into heaven; nor will we believe in thy mounting up until thou send us down a book which we may read. Say: Praise be to my Lord! Am I more than a man, and an apostle? And what hindereth men from believing, when the guidance hath come to them, but that they say, Hath God sent a mere man as an apostle? Say: Did angels walk the earth as its familiars, we had surely sent them an angel-apostle out of heaven.”

But notwithstanding these positive assertions on the part of their Prophet against his ability to work miracles, there are at least four places in the Qurʾān where the Muḥammadans believe that miracles are referred to.

1. The clefting of the moon (Sūrah liv. 1, 2): “The hour hath approached, and the moon hath been cleft. But if the unbelievers see a sign (āyah), they turn aside and say, Magic! that shall pass away!”

Al-Baiẓāwī says, in his commentary on this verse, “Some say that the unbelievers demanded this sign of the Prophet, and the moon was cleft in two; but others say it refers to a sign of the coming Resurrection, the words ‘will be cleft’ being expressed in the prophetic preterite.”

Rodwell renders it “hath been cleft,” as he thinks Muḥammad may possibly allude to some meteor or comet which he fancied to be part of the moon.

2. The assistance given to the Muslims at the battle of Badr. Sūrah iii. 120, 121: “When thou didst say to the faithful: ‘Is it not enough for you that your Lord aideth you with three thousand angels sent down from on high?’ Nay; but if ye be steadfast, and fear God, and the foe come upon you in hot haste, your Lord will help you with five thousand angels with their distinguishing marks.”

These “distinguishing marks,” say the commentators, were when the angels rode on black and white horses, and had on their heads white and yellow turbans, the ends of which hung down between their shoulders.

3. The celebrated night journey. Sūrah xvii. 1: “We declare the glory of Him who transports his servant by night from the Masjidu ʾl-Ḥarām to the Masjidu ʾl-Aqṣā (i.e. from Makkah to Jerusalem).”

4. The Qurʾān itself, which the Muḥammadans say is the great miracle of Islām, the like of which has not been created, nor ever will be, by the power of man. In proof of this they quote Sūrah xxix. 48: “It is a clear sign (āyah) in the hearts of whom the knowledge hath reached.”

Although these very doubtful assertions in the Qurʾān fail to establish the miraculous powers of the Prophet, the Traditions record numerous occasions when he worked miracles in the presence of his people.

The following are recorded in the traditions of al-Buk͟hārī and Muslim:—

(1) On the flight from Makkah, Surāqah being cursed by the Prophet, his horse sank up to its belly in the hard ground.

(2) The Prophet marked out at Badr the exact spot on which each of the idolaters should be slain, and Anas says not one of them passed alive beyond the spot marked by the Prophet.

(3) He cured the broken leg of ʿAbdu ʾllāh ibn Atiq by a touch.

(4) He converted hard ground into a heap of sand by one stroke of an axe.

(5) He fed a thousand people upon one kid and a ṣāʿ of barley.

(6) He gave a miraculous supply of water at the battle of al-Ḥudaibiyah.

(7) Two trees miraculously moved to form a shade for the Prophet.

(8) He made Jābir a good horseman by his prayers.

(9) A wooden pillar wept to such an extent that it nearly rent in two parts, because the Prophet desisted from leaning against it.

(10) A sluggish horse became swift from being ridden by the Prophet.

(11) Seventy or eighty people miraculously fed on a few barley loaves and a little butter.

(12) Three hundred men fed from a single cake.

The following are recorded by various writers:—

(1) The Prophet was saluted by the hills and trees near Makkah, with the salutation, “Peace be to thee, O Messenger of God!”

(2) A tree moved from its place to the shade when the Prophet slept under it.

(3) The Prophet cured a maniacal boy by saying, “Come out of him.”

(4) A wolf was made to speak by the Prophet.

(For further information, see Kitābu ʾl-Muʿjizāt, Ṣaḥīḥu ʾl-Buk͟hārī, Mishkātu ʾl-Maṣābiḥ, Ṣaḥīḥu Muslim.)

MIʿRĀJ (معراج‎). Lit. “An ascent.” Muḥammad’s supposed journey to heaven; called also Isrā (اسرى‎), “the nocturnal journey.” It is said to have taken place in the twelfth year of the Prophet’s mission, in the month of Rabīʿu ʾl-Awwal.

According to ʿAbdu ʾl-Ḥaqq, there are some divines who have regarded this miraculous event as a mere vision, but, he adds, the majority hold it to be a literal journey.

The only mention of the vision in the Qurʾān is contained in Sūrah xvii. 1: “Praise be to Him who carried His servant by night from the Masjidu ʾl-Ḥarām (i.e. the Makkan temple) to the Masjidu ʾl-Aqṣā (i.e. the Temple of Jerusalem).”

The following is the description of the supposed journey given in the Mishkātu ʾl-Masābiḥ. Muḥammad is related to have said:—

“Whilst I was sleeping upon my side, he (Gabriel) came to me, and cut me open from my breast to below my navel, and took out my heart, and washed the cavity with Zamzam water, and then filled my heart with Faith and Science. After this, a white animal was brought for me to ride upon. Its size was between that of a mule and an ass, and it stretched as far as the eye could see. The name of the animal was Burāq. Then I mounted the animal, and ascended until we arrived at the lowest heaven, and Gabriel demanded that the door should be opened. And it was asked, ‘Who is it?’ and he said, ‘I am Gabriel.’ And they then said, ‘Who is with you?’ and he answered, ‘It is Muḥammad.’ They said, ‘Has Muḥammad been called to the office of a prophet?’ He said, ‘Yes.’ They said, ‘Welcome Muḥammad; his coming is well.’ Then the door was opened; and when I arrived in the first heaven, behold, I saw Adam. And Gabriel said to me, ‘This is your father Adam, salute him.’ Then I saluted Adam, and he answered it, and said, ‘You are welcome, O good son, and good Prophet!’ After that Gabriel took me above, and we reached the second heaven; and he asked the door to be opened, and it was said, ‘Who is it?’ He said, ‘I am Gabriel.’ It was said, ‘Who is with you?’ He said, ‘Muḥammad.’ It was said, ‘Was he called?’ He said, ‘Yes.’ It was said, “Welcome Muḥammad; his coming is well.’ Then the door was opened; and when I arrived in the second region, behold, I saw John and Jesus (sisters’ sons). And Gabriel said, ‘This is John, and this is Jesus; salute both of them.’ Then I saluted them, and they returned it. After that they said, ‘Welcome good brother and Prophet.’ After that we went up to the third heaven, and asked the door to be opened; and it was said, ‘Who is it?’ Gabriel said, ‘I am Gabriel.’ They said, ‘Who is with you?’ He said, ‘Muḥammad.’ They said, ‘Was he called?’ Gabriel said, ‘Yes.’ They said, ‘Welcome Muḥammad; his coming is well.’ Then the door was opened; and when I entered the third heaven, behold, I saw Joseph. And Gabriel said, ‘This is Joseph, salute him.’ Then I did so, and he answered it, and said, ‘Welcome, good brother and good Prophet.’ After that Gabriel took me to the fourth heaven, and asked the door to be opened; it was said, ‘Who is that?’ He said, ‘I am Gabriel.’ It was said, ‘Who is with you?’ He said, ‘Muḥammad.’ It was said, ‘Was he called?’ He said, ‘Yes.’ They said, ‘Welcome Muḥammad; his coming is well.’ And the door was opened; and when I entered the fourth heaven, behold, I saw Enoch. And Gabriel said, ‘This is Enoch, salute him.’ And I did so, and he answered it, and said, ‘Welcome, good brother and Prophet.’ After that Gabriel took me to the fifth heaven, and asked the door to be opened; and it was said, ‘Who is there?’ He said, ‘I am Gabriel.’ It was said, ‘Who is with you?’ He said, ‘Muḥammad.’ They said, ‘Was he called?’ He said, ‘Yes.’ They said, ‘Welcome Muḥammad; his coming is well.’ Then the door was opened; and when I arrived in the fifth region, behold, I saw Aaron. And Gabriel said, ‘This is Aaron, salute him.’ And I did so, and he returned it, and said, ‘Welcome, good brother and Prophet.’ After that Gabriel took me to the sixth heaven, and asked the door to be opened; and they said, ‘Who is there?’ He said, ‘I am Gabriel.’ They said, ‘And who is with you?’ He said, ‘Muḥammad.’ They said, ‘Is he called?’ He said, ‘Yes.’ They said, ‘Welcome Muḥammad; his coming is well.’ Then the door was opened; and when I entered the sixth heaven, behold, I saw Moses. And Gabriel said, ‘This is Moses, salute him.’ And I did so; and he returned it, and said, ‘Welcome, good brother and Prophet.’ And when I passed him, he wept. And I said to him, ‘What makes you weep?’ He said, ‘Because one is sent after me, of whose people more will enter Paradise than of mine.’ After that Gabriel took me up to the seventh heaven, and asked the door to be opened; and it was said, ‘Who is it?’ He said, ‘I am Gabriel.’ And it was said, ‘Who is with you?’ He said, ‘Muḥammad.’ They said, ‘Was he called?’ He said, ‘Yes.’ They said, ‘Welcome Muḥammad; his coming is well.’ Then I entered the seventh heaven, and behold, I saw Abraham. And Gabriel said, ‘This is Abraham, your father, salute him’; which I did, and he returned it, and said, ‘Welcome good son and good Prophet.’ After that I was taken up to the tree called Sidratu ʾl-Muntahā; and behold its fruits were like water-pots, and its leaves like elephant’s ears. And Gabriel said, ‘This is Sidratu ʾl-Muntahā.’ And I saw four rivers there; two of them hidden, and two manifest. I said to Gabriel, ‘What are these?’ He said, ‘These two concealed rivers are in Paradise; and the two manifest are the Nile and the Euphrates.’ After that, I was shown the Baitu ʾl-Maʿmūr. After that, a vessel full of wine, another full of milk, and another of honey, were brought to me; and I took the milk and drank it. And Gabriel said, ‘Milk is religion; you and your people will be of it.’ After that the divine orders for prayers were fifty every day. Then I returned, and passed by Moses; and he said, ‘What have you been ordered?’ I said, ‘Fifty prayers every day.’ Then Moses said, ‘Verily, your people will not be able to perform fifty prayers every day; and verily, I swear by God, I tried men before you; I applied a remedy to the sons of Israel, but it had not the desired effect. Then return to your Lord, and ask your people to be released from that.’ And I returned; and ten prayers were taken off. Then I went to Moses, and he said as before; and I returned to God’s court, and ten prayers more were curtailed. Then I returned to Moses, and he said as before; then I returned to God’s court, and ten more were taken off. And I went to Moses, and he said as before; then I returned to God, and ten more were lessened. Then I went to Moses, and he said as before; then I went to God’s court, and was ordered five prayers every day. Then I went to Moses, and he said, ‘How many have you been ordered?’ I said, ‘Five prayers every day.’ He said, ‘Verily, your people will not be able to perform five prayers every day; for, verily, I tried men before you, and applied the severest remedy to the sons of Israel. Then return to your Lord, and ask them to be lightened.’ I said, ‘I have asked Him till I am quite ashamed; I cannot return to Him again. But I am satisfied, and resign the work of my people to God.’ Then, when I passed from that place, a crier called out, ‘I have established My divine commandments, and have made them easy to My servants.’”

Sūratu ʾl-Miʿrāj is a title of the XVIIth chapter of the Qurʾān, in the first verse of which there is a reference to the night journey of Muḥammad. It is called also the Sūratu Banī Isrāʾīl, or the Chapter of the Children of Israel.

MĪRĀS̤ (ميراث‎). [INHERITANCE.]

MĪRZĀ (ميرزا‎). A title of respect given to persons of good family.

MIRZABAH, MIRZABBAH (مرزبة‎). “A clod-crusher.” The iron hammer with which the dead are beaten who cannot reply satisfactorily to the questions put to them by Munkar and Nakīr. Called also Mit̤raqah (مطرقة‎). [PUNISHMENTS OF THE GRAVE.]

MĪS̤ĀQ (ميثاق‎). “A covenant.” A word used in the Qurʾān for God’s covenant with his people. [COVENANT.]

MISHKĀTU ʾL-MAṢĀBĪḤ (مشكاة المصابيح‎). A well-known book of Sunnī tradition, much used by Sunnī Muslims in India, and frequently quoted in the present work. It was originally compiled by the Imām Ḥusain al-Bag͟hawī, the celebrated commentator, who died A.H. 510 or 516, and called the Maṣābīḥu ʾs-Sunnah, or the “Lamps of the Traditions.” In the year A.H. 737, Shaik͟h Walīyu ʾd-dīn revised the work of al-Bag͟hawī, adding an additional chapter to each section, and called it the Mishkātu ʾl-Maṣābīḥ, or the “Niche for lamps.” In the time of the Emperor Akbar, Shaik͟h ʿAbdu ʾl-Ḥaqq translated the work into Persian, and added a commentary. (See Kashfu ʾz̤-Z̤unūn, in loco.)

MISKĪN (مسكين‎). “A poor person.” Heb. Eccles. ix. 15, ‏מִסְכֵּן‎. According to Muslim law, a person who has no property whatever, as distinguished from a faqīr (فقير‎), or a person who possesses a little property, but is poor. (Hidāyah, vol. i. p. 54.)

MIS̤QĀL (مثقال‎). An Arabic weight, which frequently occurs in Muḥammadan law books. Richardson gives it at a dram and three-sevenths. It is also used for a gold coin of that weight. [MONEY.]

MIṢR (مصر‎). [EGYPT.]

MISWĀK (مسواك‎). (1) A tooth-cleaner made of wood, about a span long. It is preferred when made of a wood which has a bitter flavour. The Salvadora Indica is the tree, the wood of which is used in India.

(2) The act of cleaning the teeth, which is a religious ceremony founded upon the example of Muḥammad, and forms the first part of the waẓūʾ, or “ablution before prayer.”

The Prophet was particularly careful in the observance of miswāk (see Mishkāt, book iii. ch. 4). It is amongst those things which are called fit̤rah (q.v.).

MIT̤RAQAH (مطرقة‎). The iron hammer or mace with which the infidels will be smitten in their graves by the angels Munkar and Nakīr. Persian gurz. [PUNISHMENTS OF THE GRAVE.]

MIYĀN (ميان‎). A Persian word, used as a title of respect for the descendants of celebrated Muḥammadan saints.

MĪZĀN (مـيـزان‎), pl. mawāzīn. Heb. pl. ‏מֹאזְנַיִם‎. Lit. “A balance.” (1) The law contained in the Qurʾān, Sūrah xlii. 16: “God is He who hath sent down the Book with truth and the balance.” (2) The scales in which the actions of all men shall be weighed. Sūrah xxi. 47: “Just balances will be set up for the Day of the Resurrection, neither shall any soul be wronged in aught; though, were a work but the weight of a grain of mustard seed, we would bring it forth to be weighed: and our reckoning will suffice.”

Muḥammad is related by ʿAbdu ʾllāh ibn ʿAmr to have said: “Verily, God will bring a Muslim into the presence of all men on the Day of Judgment, and will show him ninety-nine large books, and each book as long as the eye can reach. Then God will say to him, ‘Do you deny anything in these books? Have my writers injured you?’ And the Muslim will say, ‘O my Lord, I deny nothing that is in them.’ Then God will say, ‘Have you any excuse?’ And he will say, ‘No.’ Then God will say, ‘I have good news for you, for there is no oppression in this day.’ Then God will bring forth a piece of paper, on which is written: ‘I bear witness that there is no deity but God, and I bear witness that Muḥammad is His servant and apostle.’ And God will say, ‘Go and weigh your actions.’ And the Muslim will say, ‘What is this bit of paper compared with those large books?’ And God will say, ‘This bit of paper is heavy, weigh it.’ Then the books will be put in the scale, and the bit of paper in the other, and the books containing the actions will be light, and the bit of paper, whereon is written the creed of the Muslim, will be heavy.” (See Collection of Ḥadīs̤ by at-Tirmiẕī.)

The commentators say that the scales will be held by the angel Gabriel, and that they are of so vast a size, one hangs over Paradise, and the other over Hell, and they are capacious enough to contain both heaven and earth. Though some are willing to understand what is said in the Traditions concerning this balance allegorically, and only as a figurative representation of God’s equity, yet the more ancient and orthodox opinion is that it is to be taken literally; and since words and actions, being mere accidents, are not capable of being themselves weighed, they say that the books wherein they are written will be thrown into the scales, and according as those wherein the good or the evil actions are recorded shall preponderate, sentence will be given; those whose balances laden with their good works shall be heavy, will be saved; but those whose balances are light, will be condemned. Nor will anyone have cause to complain that God suffers any good actions to pass unrewarded, because the wicked obtain rewards for the good they do in the present life, and therefore can expect no favour in the next.

The old Jewish writers make mention of the books to be produced at the Last Day, wherein men’s actions are registered, as of the balance wherein they shall be weighed, and the Bible itself seems to have given the first notion of both. But what the Persian Magi believe of the balance comes nearest to the Muḥammadan opinion. They hold that on the Day of Judgment, two angels, named Mihr and Sorush, will stand on the bridge between heaven and hell, and examine every person as he passes; that the former, who represents the divine mercy, will hold a balance in his hand, to weigh the actions of men; that, according to the report he shall make thereof to God, sentence will be pronounced, and those whose good works are found more ponderous, if they turn the scale but by the weight of a hair, will be permitted to pass forward to Paradise; but those whose good works shall be found light, will be, by the other angel, who represents God’s justice, precipitated from the bridge into hell.

MODERATION. Arabic iqtiṣād (اقتصاد‎). According to Muḥammad’s teaching, moderation in all religious matters is better than excessive piety, and a chapter in the Traditions is devoted to the subject. He is related to have said:—

“The best act in God’s sight is that which is constantly attended to, although in a small degree.”

“Do what you are able conveniently; because God will not be tired of rewarding as long as you are not tired of doing.”

“You must continue at your prayers as long as it is agreeable to you, and when you are tired sit down.”

“Verily, religion is easy, therefore hold it firm.” (See Mishkāt, Bābu ʾl-Iqtiṣād.)

MODESTY (Arabic ḥayāʾ حياء‎) is frequently commended in the traditional sayings of Muḥammad, who is related to have said:—

“Modesty is a branch of faith.”

“Verily, modesty and faith are joined together.” (Mishkāt, book xxii. ch. xix.)

MONASTICISM Arabic rahbānīyah (رهبانية‎) was forbidden by Muḥammad. It is related in the Traditions that ʿUs̤mān ibn Maz̤ʿūn came to the Prophet with the request that he might retire from society and become a monk (rāhib). The Prophet replied, “The retirement which becomes my people is to sit in the corner of a mosque and wait for the time of prayer.” (Mishkāt, book iv. ch. 8.)

In the Qurʾān, the Christians are charged with inventing the monastic life. Sūrah lvii. 27: “We gave them the Gospel, and we put into the hearts of those who follow him, kindness and compassion; but as to the monastic life, they invented it themselves.”

According to the Hidāyah (vol. ii. p. 215), capitation-tax is not to be imposed upon Rāhibs, whether Christian or Pagan, but this is a matter of dispute.

MONEY. There are three coins mentioned in the Qurʾān, (1) Qint̤ār (قنطار‎), (2) Dīnār (دينار‎), (3) Dirham (درهم‎), pl. Darāhim.

(1) Qint̤ār. Sūrah iii. 68: “Among the people of the Book are those to one of whom, if you entrust a qint̤ār, he will restore it.”

In the Qāmūs, it is said that a qint̤ār was a gold coin of the value of 200 dīnārs, but Muḥammad T̤āhir, the author of the Majmaʿu ʾl-Biḥār (p. 173), says it implies a very considerable sum of money, as much gold as will go into the hide of a cow. It is generally translated talent.

(2) Dīnār. Sūrah iii. 68: “There are those to whom, if thou entrust a dīnār, they will not restore it to thee.” It was the denarius, or a small gold coin.

(3) Dirham. Sūrah xii. 20: “And they sold him for a mean price, dirhams counted out.” A silver drachma. [QINTAR, DINAR, DIRHAM, WEIGHTS.]

Mr. Prinsep says: “The silver rupee (rupya, silver piece), now current in Muslim countries, was introduced, according to Abulfazel, by Sher Shah, who usurped the throne of Delhi from Humayoon in the year 1542. Previous to his time, the Arabic dirhim (silver drachma), the gold dinar (denarius auri), and the copper fuloos (follis), formed the currency of the Moghul dominions. Sher Shah’s rupee had on one side the Muḥammadan creed, on the other the emperor’s name and the date in Persian, both encircled in an annular Hindee inscription. Since ‘the same coin was revived and made more pure,’ in Akber’s reign, we may assume the original weight of the rupee, from Abulfazel’s statement, to have been 11¼ máshas. Akber’s square rupee, called from its inscription the jilály, was of the same weight and value. This coin was also called the chahár-yáree, from the four friends of the Prophet, Abubekr, Omar, Osman, Ali, whose names are inscribed on the margin. This rupee is supposed by the vulgar to have talismanic power.”

MONOGAMY. Although polygamy is sanctioned in the Qurʾān, the words, “and if ye fear that ye cannot be equitable, then only one” (Sūrah iv. 3), would seem to imply a leaning to monogamy, as the safest and most discreet form of matrimony. The author of the Ak͟hlāq-i-Jalālī says: “Excepting, indeed, in the case of kings, who marry to multiply offspring, and towards whom the wife has no alternative but obedience, plurality of wives is not defensible. Even in their case it were better to be cautious; for husband and wife are like heart and body, and like as one heart cannot supply life to two bodies, one man can hardly provide for the management of two homes.” (Thompson’s English Translation, p. 266.)

MONOPOLY. Arabic iḥtikār (احتكار‎). A monopoly of the necessaries of life (as, for example, the hoarding up of grain with the object of raising its price) is forbidden in Muḥammadan law. For the Prophet has said:—

“Whoever monopolizeth is a sinner.”

“Whosoever keepeth back grain forty days, in order to increase its price, is both a forsaker of God, and is forsaken of God.” (Mishkāt, book xii. ch. x.; Hidāyah, vol. iv. p. 114.)

MONTH. Arabic shahr (شهر‎), pl. shuhūr. The months of the Muḥammadan year are lunar, and the first of the month is reckoned from the sunset immediately succeeding the appearance of the new moon (hilāl). The names of the months are: (1) Muḥarram محرّم‎; (2) Ṣafar صفر‎; (3) Rabīʿu ʾl-Awwal ربيع الاول‎; (4) Rabīʿu ʾl-Āk͟hir ربيع الاخر‎; (5) Jumādā ʾl-Ūlā جمادى الاولى‎; (6) Jumādā ʾl-Uk͟hrā جمادى الاخرى‎; (7) Rajab رجب‎; (8) Shaʿbān شعبان‎; (9) Ramaẓān رمضان‎; (10) Shawwāl شوّال‎; (11) Ẕū ʾl-Qaʿdah ذو القعدة‎; (12) Ẕū ʾl-Ḥijjah ذو الحجة‎.

Four of these months are held to be sacred, namely, Muḥarram, Rajab, Ẕū ʾl-Qaʿdah, Ẕū ʾl-Ḥijjah, and according to the teaching of the Qurʾān (Sūrah ix. 36), it is not lawful for Muslims to fight during these months, except when they attack those “who join other gods with God, even as they attack you one and all.”

The names of the months seem to have been given at a time when the intercalary year was in force, although Muslim writers assume that the names were merely given to the months as they then stood at the time when they were so named. For a discussion of the formation of the Muḥammadan year, the reader is referred to that article. [YEAR.]

(1) Muḥarram is the first month in the Muḥammadan calendar, and is so called because, both in the pagan age and in the time of Muḥammad, it was held unlawful (ḥarām) to go to war in this month. It is considered a most auspicious month, and Muḥammad is related to have said, “Whosoever shall fast on Thursday, Friday, and Saturday in this month, shall be removed from hell fire a distance of seven hundred years journey; and that he who shall keep awake the first night of this month, shall be forgiven all the sins of the past year; and he who shall fast the whole of the first day, shall be kept from sin for the next two years.” (Hanīsu ʾl-Waizīn, p. 154.) The first ten days of this month are observed in commemoration of the martyrdom of al-Ḥusain, and the tenth day is the ʿĀshūrāʾ fast.

(2) Ṣafar, the second month, is supposed to derive its name from ṣafir, “empty,” either because in it the Arabians went forth to war and left their homes empty, or, according to Rubeh, because they left whom they attacked empty. According to some writers, it was so named from ṣufār, “yellowness,” because when it was first so called, it was autumn, when the leaves bore a yellowish tint. (Vide Lane’s Arabic Dict.; G͟hiyās̤u ʾl-Lug͟hah.) It is held to be the most unlucky and inauspicious month in the whole year, for in it, it is said, Adam was turned out of Eden. (See Hanīsu ʾl-Waizīn.) It was during this month that the Prophet was taken ill, but his partial recovery took place on the last Wednesday.

(3) Rabīʿu ʾl-Awwal, and (4) Rabīʿu ʾl-Āk͟hir, the first and second spring months, are said to have been so named when the calendar was first formed, and when these months occurred in the spring. Muḥammad died on the 12th day of the Rabīʿu ʾl-Awwal.

(5) Jumādā ʾl-Ūlā, and (6) Jumādā ʾl-Uk͟hrā, are the fifth and sixth months, about which there is some discussion as to the origin of the name. Mr. Lane, in his Dictionary, says the two months to which the name Jamādā (freezing) is applied, are said to be so called because, when they were so named, they fell in the season of freezing water; but this derivation seems to have been invented when the two months thus named had fallen back into, or beyond, the winter, for when they received this appellation, the former of them evidently commenced in March, and the latter ended in May. Therefore, I hold the opinion of M. Caussin de Perceval, that they were thus called because falling in a period when the earth had become dry and hard, by reason of paucity of rain, jamād being an epithet applied to land upon which rain has not fallen, which opinion is confirmed by the obvious derivation of the names of other months. (See Lane’s Arabic Dict. in loco.)

(7) Rajab, the “honoured” month, so called because of the honour in which the month was held in the Times of Ignorance, inasmuch as war was not permitted during this month. The Prophet is related to have said that the month Rajab was like a snowy white fountain flowing from heaven itself, and that he who fasts on this month will drink of the waters of life. It is called Rajab-i-Muẓar, because the Muẓar tribe held it in high esteem. It is usual for religious Muslims to spend the first Friday night (i.e. our Thursday night) of this month in prayer.

(8) Shaʿbān, the month of separation (called also the Shahru ʾn-Nabī, “the Prophet’s month”), is so called because the ancient Arabians used to separate, or disperse themselves, in this month in search of water (for when the months were regulated by the solar year, this month corresponded partly to June and partly to July), or, as some say, for predatory expeditions. On the fifteenth day of this month is the Shab-i-Barāt, or “Night of Record,” upon which it is said that God registers annually all the actions of mankind which they are to perform during the year, and upon which Muḥammad enjoined his followers to keep awake the whole night and to repeat one hundred rakʿah prayers. [SHAB-I-BARAT.]

(9) Ramaẓān, the ninth month of the Muḥammadan year, is that which is observed as a strict fast. The word is derived from ramẓ, “to burn,” because it is said that, when the month was first named, it occurred in the hot season; or because the month’s fast is supposed to burn away the sins of men. (See G͟hiyās̤u ʾl-Lug͟hah.) The excellence of this month is much extolled by Muḥammad, who said that during this month the gates of Paradise are opened, and the gates of Hell shut. (Mishkāt, book vii. chap. i. sec. 1.) [RAMAZAN.]

(10) Shawwāl, lit. “a tail,” is the tenth month of the lunar year, and, according to Arabic lexicons (see G͟hiyās̤u ʾl-Lug͟hah, Qāmūs, &c.), it is so called because, when first named, it coincided with the season when the she-camels, being seven or eight months gone with young, raised their tails; or, because it was the month for hunting. The Arabs used to say that it was an unlucky month in which to make marriage contracts, but the Prophet ignored their thus auguring, and married ʿĀyishah in this month. The ʿĪdu ʾl-Fit̤r, or “the Feast of Breaking the Fast,” occurs on the first of this month.

(11) Ẕū ʾl-Qaʿdah, or the month of truce, is the eleventh month, and so called by the ancient Arabs, because it was a month in which warfare was not conducted, and in which the people were engaged in peaceful occupations.

(12) Ẕū ʾl-Ḥijjah, the month of the Pilgrimage, is the last month of the Muḥammadan calendar. It is the month in which the pilgrimage to Makkah must be made, a visit to the sacred city at another time having in no way the merits of a pilgrimage. The Ḥajj, or “Pilgrimage,” is performed upon the seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth of this month. The ʿĪdu ʾl-Aẓḥā, or “Feast of Sacrifice,” is held on the tenth. [HAJJ.]

MORTGAGE. [IJARAH.]

MOON. Arabic qamar (قمر‎). The moon is frequently mentioned in the Qurʾān. Muḥammad on three occasions swears by it (Sūrahs lxxiv. 35; lxxxiv. 18; xci. 2), and it is said to have been set in the heavens for a light (Sūrahs x. 5; lxxi. 15), to run to its appointed goal (Sūrahs xxxv. 14; xxxi. 7), and that it will be eclipsed at the Day of Judgment (Sūrah lxxv. 8). The LIVth Sūrah of the Qurʾān, which is entitled the Sūratu ʾl-Qamar, begins with a reference to the splitting of the moon, which is a matter of controversy. It reads: “The hour draws nigh and the moon is split asunder. But if they see a sign, they turn aside and say magic continues.”

Al-Baiẓāwī refers it to a miracle, and says the unbelievers having asked Muḥammad for a sign, the moon appeared to be cloven in twain. But the most natural explanation of the passage is, that the expression refers to one of the signs of the Resurrection.

At an eclipse of the moon, a devout Muslim is expected to recite a two rakʿah prayer.