window is in good preservation (Fig. 218), and is one of the most favourable examples of a kind of tracery developed in Scotland during the fifteenth century. At the north-west corner of the refectory is the staircase tower (see Fig. 217.), which leads down to the offices below, and upwards to the refectory roof, over which access was obtained to the upper
story of the “Pend Tower.” In the north wall of the refectory, near the west end, are the remains of a flue, which may have belonged to a fireplace. The “Pend Tower” is still entire, wanting only the cape house and roof. It served as a connecting passage between the abbey buildings and the royal palace beyond. A door led from the refectory (see Plan, Fig. 219.) by a passage into a groined chamber, and from thence into a room in the palace situated over the kitchen. The kitchen is a lofty room, now roofless, having remains of large fireplaces and some curious recesses. Below the kitchen, but entering from another part of the palace, there is a large vaulted apartment with central pillars. (Fig. 220.) These pillars were continued up through the kitchen, and probably to the room, now gone, which stood over the kitchen. Another arched passage led from this apartment through below St. Catherine’s Wynd and up to the monastery. The building known as the palace was, doubtless, intimately connected with the monastery, and the kitchen shown on the plan may have been used in connection with both.
Returning to the vaulted chamber in the “Pend Tower,” a long narrow vaulted passage leads from it along the refectory wall for the length of two bays. It is vaulted across from side to side for the length of the first bay, and then in the second bay one half-arch springs at right
angles to the first arch from the end of the passage to meet the cross vault. This probably indicates that steps lead down in the passage to the level of the rooms below the refectory. But the place cannot be properly seen, being chocked full with the grass and rubbish thrown in from the churchyard. This passage is a very effective feature, as seen from the outside. It is supported on arches thrown from buttress to buttress, and is covered with a stone roof above (see Fig. 216.).
Within the “Pend Tower,” on the first floor, there is a five-sided room with a fireplace, which appears to have been a sort of guard room. It is vaulted, and has ribs irregularly placed, as shown on plan. This part of the ruins is now a receptacle for rubbish, and is almost blocked up. Over this, and entering from the circular stair adjoining, is the room shown in Fig. 221. It is groin vaulted, and had a fireplace of good design. To save this “Pend Tower,” with its fine vaulted apartments,
a proper roof ought to be placed over it. Beneath the tower is the “Pend” or archway uniting St. Catherine’s Wynd and Monastery Street.
The above passage and staircase are additions made, without doubt, at the time when the tower was built. This is clearly seen in Fig. 216. From this drawing it is obvious that the arches were thrown between the already existing buttresses of the refectory, and in the second bay the arch is at a low level to permit of the descending stair already referred to. The builders have just managed to save a very beautiful doorway
belonging to the earlier building, now hardly seen in the shadow of the overhanging addition.
To the east of the refectory there is a narrow chamber with the remains of a two-light window in the south wall, and projecting southwards from this is the lower part of the wall of the fratery reaching as high as the floor of the refectory. On the east side of the fratery extends
the south wall of a building called, on the plan, the Bailery Prison. These fragmentary structures exhaust the remains of the monastic
buildings. The chapterhouse, and the buildings on the east side of the cloister (shown in outline on the plan), are taken from the old plan already referred to, but their accuracy cannot be guaranteed.
As already mentioned, the monastery was burned by Edward I. in 1303-4; but, according to Tytler,[164] the church escaped. Froissart, however, narrates that in 1385 Richard II. burned the abbey and town. It is impossible to say to what extent these devastations were carried, but we doubt if any of the existing monastic buildings belong to an earlier date than that last mentioned. Perhaps the south wall may be older, and has been restored. The tracery of the refectory west window belongs to the end of the fifteenth century. The “Pend Tower” was built after the refectory was finished, as it abuts against the westmost buttress (as seen in Fig. 216.) in a way it would not have done had the whole been of one construction; also, the corner buttress has been cut away, as may be seen at the right-hand side of Fig. 221.
William Schaw, Master of Works, besides the buildings already referred to, erected, in 1594, certain of the immense buttresses which form such conspicuous features in all the views of the abbey. He likewise built, and doubtless designed, the Queen’s House, and the Bailie and Constabulary House, shown in the plan. In connection with the latter houses, there are considerable remains of buildings still existing (as shown on Plan) to the north-west of the abbey, and there seems every probability that they formed part of the structures of the abbey and of the Queen’s House. They are extremely picturesque as seen from the low ground to the west. (Fig. 222.) The lofty house on the right hand dates probably
from the end of the seventeenth century, and is a fine example of its period. The adjoining buildings are considerably earlier, and in the lower parts, where they are buttressed, they are probably of pre-Reformation times. The upper portions are somewhat later, and are very likely part of the work of Schaw. The porch to the latter buildings is on the other side, and is quaint and well known from being seen from the church. William Schaw died in 1602, and was buried in the nave, where the monument to his memory (Fig. 223) was erected by order of Queen Anne.
The palace, which was intimately connected with the abbey, has been described elsewhere.[165]
In approaching Kirkwall from the sea, the chief object which meets the view is the great mass of the cathedral. The town gradually comes into sight, with its harbour and quays; but attention is irresistibly fixed on the huge church, which overtops everything else.
When the quaint old streets, with the gables of the houses facing the narrow roadway, are traversed, and the open space round the cathedral is reached, the visitor’s admiration of the structure is by no means diminished. He enters by one of three splendid doorways in the west end, which recall the portals of the cathedrals of France rather than those of England.
The first view of the interior is striking and impressive. (Fig. 224.) The long perspective of the great round pillars and arches on each side of the nave, surmounted by the round arched triforium and clerestory, and the lofty roof covered with simple vaulting, give an impression of size and height which is larger than is borne out by after measurement. This appearance of great size has often been remarked of St. Magnus’, and, no doubt, arises from the height and length of the edifice as compared with its width, which between the piers is only 17 feet, while the length of the nave is 111 feet, and the height to the apex of the vault is about 50 feet. The cathedral is found to be complete in all its great divisions. (Fig. 225), Plan.)[166] The nave has side aisles, which are vaulted, and the side walls are arcaded with interlacing Norman arches. The choir is, unfortunately, excluded by a glass screen from the general view of the cathedral, owing to the east end being still used as the parish church. The choir is of considerable length, being 85 feet 6 inches long by 47 feet 6 inches wide, and has main piers, triforium, and clerestory, of about the same height as the nave. It is also vaulted, and has vaulted side aisles. The longitudinal section (Fig. 226) shows the comparative heights of the nave and choir.
The transept is 90 feet long by 17 feet wide, and has a great appearance of height, but is not vaulted. It has no aisles, but has a vaulted chapel projected to the east from each division of the transept. Fig. 227 is a section through the transept from north to south.
The choir contains six bays, and the nave eight bays.
When the exterior is examined, it is found to present at a glance a general history of the structure, and the changes which have taken place in it. The layers and masses of the different coloured stones which have been used in the edifice at different times tell their own tale.
Fig. 228 shows the north elevation of the whole cathedral.[167] The oldest work (which, however, comprises several periods) is constructed with dark slaty stone, having red freestone dressings. This masonry comprises the whole of the outer walls of the choir, the transept, and the greater part of the nave. It is evident, however, that this style of masonry includes not only much Norman work, with its round arches and flat buttresses, but also some later work, which has pointed windows and boldly-projected buttresses. The Norman work (Figs. 228 and 229) may be observed in the transept, and several bays of the nave and choir nearest the transept, while the pointed work is specially noticeable in the eastern half of the choir.
In the clerestory walls of the choir (Fig. 230) great changes are observable. The lower part of the wall, which contains the windows, is built with dark red freestone, while the upper part is of whitish freestone, clearly showing that the clerestory has been raised, together with the parapet. The old line of the eaves is further apparent from the row of Norman corbels which marks the original level before the wall was raised. These corbels are specially visible on the north side of the choir clerestory, but a few also remain on the south side. The new corbel table under the parapet consists of corbels of well-known first pointed form.
Turning to the nave, it will be observed (see Fig. 228.) that the whole of the clerestory wall (except the two westmost bays) is built with whitish freestone, while the windows are of small size and are pointed. The clerestory of the nave thus corresponds with the raised part of that of the choir in the stone used, but differs from it in the windows, which are narrow. The parapet and corbel table of this part of the building, and indeed throughout nearly the whole structure, are similar to those of the choir, and in the later work have evidently been copied from the earlier ones. In the transept the alterations are plainly seen in the heightened portions of the north and south gables (see Figs. 229 and 230), which are carried out with red freestone ashlar, and in the details of the upper window of the north transept and the rose window of the south transept, which are all of a later character than the Norman work of the lower parts of the transept. In the south transept there may also be noticed a pointed doorway (Fig. 231) built with party-coloured stones, which has been inserted by cutting into the old Norman arcade of the interior. This is distinctly seen in the elevation of the interior (Fig. 232). Probably, when this was done, the older doorway which existed at the east end of the nave south aisle, in the usual position for access to the cloister, was built up, the intention of having a cloister being abandoned. Some traces of the impost of the arch of the original doorway, carved with Norman enrichments, may still be seen.
The two westmost bays of the nave (see Fig. 228.) are built almost entirely from top to bottom with red freestone, having a slight admixture of white stone. This indicates a considerable alteration, and it will be found that these two bays were rebuilt at a late period, when a new west
front was erected and the cathedral was extended westwards. It may be mentioned that the cathedral stands alone in the middle of a large churchyard. There are no other ecclesiastical structures connected with it, such as cloisters or chapter house. The Bishop’s Palace,[168] however, is not far off. It has been a fine stately edifice, but is now greatly ruined.
Before considering more minutely the order of construction of the cathedral, it is desirable to glance at the conditions under which it was designed and carried out.
Under the rule of the Norsemen, in the ninth and tenth centuries, any early symptoms of Christian influence which may have previously existed in Orkney had died out. But after the conversion of the inhabitants of Orkney to Christianity, about the year 1000, traces of Christian worship became observable. The first actual Bishop of Orkney was William the Old, who held the bishopric for sixty-six years, and died in 1168. He must, therefore, have been consecrated in 1102. His see was first at Birsay (see p. 135), but was removed to Kirkwall on the erection of the cathedral in 1137-52. The Bishop of Orkney was one of the suffragans of the metropolitan see of Throndhjeim, which was erected in 1154. It was not till 1472 that the see was placed under the metropolitan Bishop of St. Andrews.
The possession of the Orkneys was sometimes divided between two relatives. In the beginning of the twelfth century two cousins, Hacon and Magnus, shared the government; but in 1115 the latter was treacherously slain in the island of Egilsay by Hacon, who thus obtained the whole earldom.
Some time after, however, a new claimant for Magnus’ share arose in Rognvald, the son of Magnus’ sister, who made a vow that if he succeeded in establishing his claim he would erect a “stone minster” in honour of his predecessor, St. Magnus, the latter having been canonised. Rognvald was successful in his project, and immediately proceeded to fulfil his vow by founding at Kirkwall a cathedral dedicated to St. Magnus.
The building was designed and superintended by the Norwegian Kol, the father of Rognvald, who had the principal oversight of the whole work. The relics of St. Magnus were brought from Christ’s Kirk, in Birsay, to be deposited in the cathedral as soon as it was ready to receive them; but in the meantime they rested in the Church of St. Olaf, an older edifice which then existed at Kirkwall.[169]
The Cathedral of St. Magnus was thus designed and erected by a Norwegian earl, while the bishopric was under the authority of the Norwegian Metropolitan of Throndhjeim. It is thus practically a
Norwegian edifice, and is by far the grandest monument of the rule of the Norsemen in Orkney.
In these circumstances, it is not to be expected that the architecture should in every detail follow the contemporary styles which prevailed in
Britain; but it is astonishing to find how closely the earlier parts correspond with the architecture of Normandy, which was developed by a kindred race—the successors of Rollo and his rovers, who settled in that country at an earlier date.
Fig. 232.—Kirkwall Cathedral. Interior of Doorway in South Transept. The shaded voussoirs are of yellow and the remainder of red freestone.
There can be little doubt that the Romanesque architecture which prevailed in the North of Europe found its way at a comparatively late
date into Scandinavia. The Norman form of that style would naturally follow the same course amongst the kindred races in Norway
and Denmark, just as it did in England and Scotland, and from Norway it would be transplanted into Orkney. We find that the “transition” style and pointed styles follow here a similar course to that observed in other countries, although, no doubt, with certain modifications, such as might be looked for at so great a distance from the centre of origin.
Sir Henry Dryden, who has given a great deal of study to Kirkwall Cathedral, finds the differences of the architecture there as compared with that of England so great that the usual terms in England are not applicable; but we believe that, with some allowances, the same general stages of progress can be observed at St. Magnus’ as in the South.
It is well known that French architects were sent for to carry out the Cathedral of Upsala, while the architecture of the Cathedral of Throndhjeim is English in character. A certain mixture of design is traceable in the details of these northern structures, but the general scope of the architecture follows that of the rest of Europe.
The Cathedral of St. Magnus was, as above mentioned, begun by Earl Rognvald in 1137, and was, doubtless, carried on with as great expedition as possible. It was a gigantic work to be undertaken in this situation at the time, and difficulty arose with regard to funds. This, however, was overcome by allowing the proprietors of lands in Orkney to redeem their property by a single payment of a sum per acre, paid at once, instead of according to the usual practice, on each succession.
The first parts of the cathedral built (shown by black tint on Plan) were the three westmost or Norman bays of the choir, with their aisles, both the transepts, the crossing (afterwards altered), intended to receive a tower over it, and two bays of the nave, which served to form an abutment for the crossing. These portions are all (where unaltered) in the earliest style of Norman work in the edifice. The round piers and responds of the choir, the two south piers and one north pier of the nave (with their cushion caps) (Fig. 233), the main arches (with their label mouldings in the choir and transept) (see Figs. 227 and 234), the round arched and labelled windows in choir, transept, and nave (see Fig. 228.), and the interlaced arcades in the latter (Fig. 235), all point to a somewhat advanced period of Norman work.
The choir originally terminated with a central apse beyond the third pier (as shown by dotted line), but it is impossible to say whether the side aisles also had apses, or whether the aisle was continued round the apse.
The Norman windows of the choir aisle have three external orders, with a label ornament in the outer order. The single shafts have cushion caps, and the windows are largely splayed internally.
An interlacing arcade of round arches, with single shafts and cushion caps (some with volutes), runs round the north, south, and west sides of
the transept. (See Fig. 235.). The large arches leading into the east chapels were formed originally, but the chapels were built later. The lower string course of the transept is enriched with a four-leaved flower. (See Fig. 232.)
It seems likely that soon after the completion of the above portions attention was given to the continuation of the nave westwards for several bays. The piers have the same round form as the original ones, but the caps are no longer octagonal, but round (see Figs. 224 and 233), and instead of the cushion form, the caps are moulded. The north
aisle wall opposite the three bays, west from the crossing, would appear to have been built early (see Figs. 228 and 229). The buttresses are of the flat Norman form, the three eastmost windows are moulded in three orders, with a label enrichment like the choir aisle windows, while the two windows to the west of above, although round, have mouldings of a first pointed character, and were, doubtless, finished at a later time (see aisle window in Fig. 236.). In the south aisle of the nave the east window is similar to those of the north side, but the others, extending as far as the south doorway, have, in the interior, mouldings indicating a more advanced date. (Fig. 237.) Externally, these windows have been restored. There would appear to have been a good deal of time spent over these aisle walls extending as far as the north and south doorways, and the main piers and arches within them were probably erected at the same period. Both of the above aisle walls have a Norman interlacing arcade (see Fig. 237.) running along the interior below the windows. In these arcades, and those of the transepts, various varieties of chevron ornament occur. The north aisle doorway (see Fig. 236.) is Norman in detail, but seems to have been restored at a late date. The interior mouldings are similar to those of the three west doorways. The doorway in the south aisle retains its old Norman arch and shafts in the interior, but has been altered externally (Fig. 238). The nave piers may have been continued as far as the above doors about this time, together with the triforium, but the upper part of the nave walls and the vaulting are later.
After the Norman period above described, a distinct change of style is observable. This is prominently seen in the piers and arches of the crossing (see Figs. 233 and 235), which are of an advanced transition style, and appear to have been introduced in lieu of the old Norman piers. Possibly, however, the older piers are preserved and encased in the new. The latter (Fig. 239) are arranged in the form of clustered shafts, approaching first pointed in plan. The bases and caps of the shafts are of transition character, being very like those of Jedburgh Abbey, a good transition example. Some, however, have a tendency to foliage, but all are much damaged. The arches are in distinct orders, like first pointed work, and the inner order of those next the nave and choir is enriched with a large boldly relieved chevron ornament (see Fig. 233.). The windows in the choir nearest the main arches of the crossing, and the triforium openings into the transept, appear to have been altered and rebuilt at the time of this operation. The upper part of the north transept was probably raised and its windows inserted at this time, as they are of transition character; but the raising of the south transept and introduction of the rose window in it is of a somewhat later date. This circular window (see Fig. 235.) is very similar to that in the east window of the choir. The chapels on the east side of the transept are also of the transition period. Both internally, including the vaulting, and externally, including the pointed windows (see Figs. 229 and 230), the work of these chapels is very advanced transition in style. Of course, it must be understood that the style is referred to, not the date. The transition style may not have penetrated to Orkney till a long time after it had been abandoned further south, possibly not till the middle of the thirteenth century. The space between the south chapel and the choir aisle has been built up and formed into a small vaulted chamber, which has no
opening communicating with the chamber in the south chapel. It enters from a window in the aisle changed into a door. The use of this chamber is unknown. The large windows in the triforium of the transept, adjoining the crossing, are cut across by the aisle roofs. This arises from the aisle roofs having been raised at a late period. The vaulting of the original choir, and the vaulting shafts, with their corbels (see Section, Fig. 226.), probably also belong to the transition period.
The completion of the nave, as far as the original west wall, was probably next undertaken. The piers (as above mentioned), although round on plan like the original ones, have round moulded caps like those further east. The arches over the piers were, no doubt, executed at the
same time, and the triforium carried up. The latter consists of three orders of plain arches, with chamfer on edge, except some on the north side, which have a bead and fillet on edge, thus indicating a somewhat advanced date.
It is not easy to say when the clerestory and vaulting of the nave were executed; but, from the circumstance that the clerestory is built with whitish stone, similar to the raised part of the clerestory of the choir, we are inclined to believe that it was carried out about the same period as the heightening and vaulting of the choir, to be afterwards referred to.
Steps are introduced at the bottom of the nave triforium arches, which, however, can scarcely be seen from below. Their object is to raise the floor of the triforium, so as to give height for the aisle vaults.
The next alteration of the cathedral effected a complete revolution in the eastern portion of the edifice. The apse was taken down, and the choir, with its aisles, was extended by three bays to the eastward. (See Fig. 234.) The junction of the extended work with the old is quite apparent in the large pier on the left.
The style of this extension of the choir has in many points a strong resemblance to advanced first pointed work, but it exhibits some peculiarities of detail. The piers of the new bays consist of clustered shafts, but the arrangement of the shafts is peculiar, having rounds and hollows passing into one another, and with fillets on edge, more like decorated work than first pointed. The bases are of early form, and the caps, which generally resemble first pointed work, have also features which recall the French “Crochet caps” of the period.
Possibly some of the Frenchmen engaged at Upsala or Throndhjeim may have been brought over to the work at St. Magnus’, and have here left the mark of their French extraction. Some of the caps, which have a square abacus, have small leaves introduced at the junction of the circle with the square—an arrangement common in bases, but very unusual in capitals. (See Main Pier, Fig. 240.)
The main arches over the piers (see Fig. 234.) are not pointed, but semi-circular (a form of common occurrence in Scotland). Otherwise the sections of the mouldings, and the arrangement of the orders in distinct divisions, are quite first pointed in style.
The triforium consists of plain chamfered semi-circular arches and jambs in three orders, with plain impost mouldings, being a continuation of the design of the triforium of the earlier part of the choir.
The clerestory has simple pointed windows, moulded on sconsion, but without cusps, at the same level as the Norman windows in the western part of the choir.
A vaulting shaft is carried up between the piers. It springs from the pier caps, and is very small up to the triforium, where it thickens and runs up to the triforium caps, and above that point is carried up as a triple shaft to the cap which receives the springing of the vault.
The clerestory windows appear to have been built before the vaulting was arranged, seeing that they are placed very low in the red part of the wall. But when the vaulting was designed, it was found desirable to raise the walls so as to get proper height for the arches. This was done in whitish stone, and shows distinctly on the exterior, as above stated. A row of Norman corbels on the north side marks the original height of the clerestory wall. These corbels appear to have been moved from the Norman part of the choir, and inserted in their present position when the choir
was lengthened. A few corbels remain in their original position on the south side of the choir. The vaulting of the old part of the choir was also altered at the time when the new vaulting was built. The design of the extended choir aisles corresponds with that of the choir, and is very beautiful, though somewhat foreign in character. (See Fig. 240.) The ribs of the choir and aisle vaults have all bold sections of first pointed form.
The east end of the cathedral is of this period. The great east window (see Fig. 234.) fills the whole space available. This window, including its mouldings, measures (according to Sir H. Dryden) 37 feet 2½ inches by 16 feet 7½ inches. It is well designed, and has side shafts of first pointed form, while the tracery is perhaps a little more advanced. The great rose in the arch, which expands over the whole of the mullions and arches of the tracery, is (as pointed out by Sir H. Dryden) quite peculiar and unique. The three-arched recesses under the east window indicate that the altar stood free from the wall. On the exterior, the junction of the new buttresses with the old Norman ones is distinctly seen. (See Fig. 230.) The former are of red freestone, and project with water tables in stages, while the latter are flat and shallow. The side windows have plain splays in the jambs, and have no caps, one round-headed window on the south side has two lights, and a doorway is formed beneath it. A large base course goes round the choir and marks the new work. It is also continued round the transept chapels at a lower level. Besides the raising of the clerestory walls, above referred to, the aisle walls of the choir have also been raised. On the north side (see Fig. 229.) this is effected by leaving the old parapet and building a second parapet above it, while on the south side (see Fig. 230.) the old parapet has been removed and the wall heightened with red ashlar, and a new parapet placed at the higher level. Several square windows have been cut in the lower part of the north choir wall. These are modern, and are not shown in the sketch. Their object is to admit light under a gallery which has been inserted in the north aisle. The floor of the choir has been raised, and is now reached by several steps from the transept; but the steps to the sanctuary are believed to have been where shown on the plan. As already mentioned, the clerestory and vaulting of the six eastmost bays of the nave was probably executed soon after the choir was finished, the outer wall of the clerestory being built with the same whitish stone as the heightened part of the choir. The windows are small and of plain-pointed form, like those of the choir. Some of them have the appearance of having been cut up into the vaulting, as if they had been inserted or heightened after the vaulting was built. It is to be remarked that while the parapets of the nave and choir are on the same level on the exterior, the vaulting of the nave is several feet lower than that of the choir.
The three western doorways (Fig. 241) and the pointed doorway in the south transept (see Fig. 231.) must be assigned to a period rather later than the choir. The wall containing the three west doorways is built out