of the square with the nave walls. It is supposed to have been erected outside the church, with the view of lengthening it, while the original west front stood at a point distant one bay from it. The new west wall seems to have been left unfinished for a considerable time, the upper part of the west front having, from its style, evidently been built at a much later period than the doorways. When the new west wall was completed, the old west front would be removed. This necessitated the building of the westmost pair of piers. While this operation was in progress, the next pair of piers and arch above have yielded, and the piers remain much inclined to the west.
The three west doorways and that in the south transept are specially remarkable from their presenting probably the finest examples in Great Britain of the use of coloured stones in the construction. This is chiefly observable in the exterior, but is also carried out in the interior of these doorways (Fig. 242). The north doorway (Fig. 245) and central doorway (Fig. 244) of the west front have the colours arranged in concentric rings in the arches, red and yellow alternating. In the south doorway (Fig. 243) the same colours radiate and alternate, and in the doorway of the south transept the red and yellow stones are arranged chequerwise. (See Fig. 231.) Fig. 246 shows the plan of the central doorway.
Fig. 245.—Kirkwall Cathedral. Plan and Elevation of North Doorway of West End.
Fig. 245.—Kirkwall Cathedral. Plan and Elevation of North Doorway of West End.
The shafts have all been detached, as shown in the plans. They have been renewed; but, as Sir H. Dryden suggests, no doubt correctly, they were probably at first in red and yellow stone alternately.
The caps have been very elaborately carved with foliage, which is now much decayed. It looks later than the enrichments of the arches, which consist of early ornaments, such as the dog-tooth and chevron, much undercut. These enrichments, and the foliage which ran up the jambs of the doorway, are now greatly decayed, especially the portions carved in the yellow stone. In the case of the south transept doorway, the stonework, which is much wasted, has been roughly repaired with cement. The central doorway has five orders of mouldings, and the north and south doorways four orders. The south transept doorway has also four orders.
Notwithstanding the damage they have sustained, these doorways are still amongst the most charming portions of the edifice; and, as regards the coloured decoration of their masonry, they stand almost alone in this country.
In the interior the west doorways and responds of piers (Fig. 242) are constructed with alternate bands of red and yellow stone, and the sconsion moulding is enriched with a ball ornament. The sconsion of the doorway of the north nave aisle has a similar enrichment, showing that it must have been restored at a late date, as already mentioned.
The buttresses between the west doorways are, so far as original, also carried up in alternate red and yellow courses. (See Fig. 241.) The upper part of the gablet over the centre doorway is of the seventeenth century, and bears the shield of Sir George Hay of Kinfauns, who rented the lands of the bishopric in the beginning of the seventeenth century. A crozier is added to the shield in connection with the lands of the see. (See enlarged sketch in Fig. 244.)
The upper part of the west front is of late construction, having probably been carried out when the two west bays of the nave were built. These bays, as above mentioned, were added to the cathedral at a late period, and are almost entirely built with red freestone. The piers are designed in imitation of the old nave piers, but the caps and bases have different mouldings, and the plinth of the base is round, while that of the older bases is square. (See Fig. 242.)
The triforium and clerestory are also constructed in imitation of the older parts of the nave. The three west bays of the nave and two bays of the aisles remained without vaulting till they were covered with the present wooden vaults, when the building was repaired by the Government in 1848.
The aisle windows in these bays are narrow, and have trefoiled cusped heads, being the only cusping in the cathedral (see Fig. 236.), except those in the large round windows.
The parapet of the north side of the nave is evidently a very late piece of work. It is supported on large trefoil ornaments, or inverted fleurs-de-lys, cut square into the wall, without chamfer or moulding. (See Fig. 236.)
This ornament extends along the six eastmost bays of the nave, the two westmost bays having a plain parapet on the same level. On the south side of the nave the aisle wall has been raised with red ashlar (like the choir south wall), and an ordinary parapet placed above it.
The buttresses in the west part of the north side of the nave are of a late pattern, with two set-offs, and those on the south side of the nave have been repaired and altered.
In the south side of the nave a new exterior doorway (see Fig. 238.) has been substituted for the old Norman doorway, the shafts and arch of the latter remaining in the interior. The new doorway is said to have been inserted by Bishop Reid in the sixteenth century. This is the same Bishop whom we meet with as Prior of Beauly and Abbot of Kinloss (q.v.)
The doorway has the late form of a three-sided arch, and the mouldings are those common at the period (sixteenth century). In the centre of the lintel is the shield for a coat of arms, now obliterated, but a mitre is still traceable. A benitier adjoins the doorway, and there seems to have been a wooden porch or awning over it.
The tower over the crossing (see Fig. 230.) has been considerably operated upon in modern times. The old wooden spire was destroyed by lightning in 1671, and the tower consequently required repairs. The parapet and pinnacles are modern, as also the pointed and slated roof; but the lower part seems to be of considerable age (see Section, Fig. 227.). The part within the roof of the church is apparently of transition date, and the upper part, with the large pointed windows, is probably of fifteenth century work.
An unusually wide wheel stair leads from the north-west and south-west angles of the transept to the upper parts of the edifice. These stairs are connected with passages which circulate all round the clerestory and triforium in the thickness of the walls (Fig. 247), and give access to every part of the building. They also pass round the tower at each story, and are connected with small wheel stairs in the angles, by one of which access is obtained to the roof.
There would appear to have been, at one time, numerous fine monuments in the cathedral, but they have all disappeared.
An arched recess, with a gablet over it, in the south nave aisle (see Fig. 237.) is now empty, but is supposed, by Sir H. Dryden, to have been erected for some member of the family of the Strathernes, Earls of Orkney.
The altar tomb of Bishop Tulloch, who died soon after 1455, stood between the two eastmost pillars of the choir. It was a handsome erection, and appears to have had a canopy, but not a fragment now exists. A stone cist was discovered between the two east piers of the choir (north side) during the repairs in 1848. It contained a skeleton doubled up, and an ivory crozier and a plate of lead inscribed, “Hic requiescit Wilialmus senex felicis memorie,” and on the back “primus episcopus.” Bishop William the old died in 1168. The cist and bones were carted away with the rubbish in 1856, but the ivory staff handle and the lead plate are preserved in the Museum of the Society of Antiquaries at Edinburgh.
Numerous slabs, with inscriptions of the seventeenth century, have been erected against the nave walls.
At one time the cathedral possessed some fine specimens of woodwork. The canopy over the Bishop’s throne (shown by Billings) has now disappeared.
The alms dishes, which are of brass, 2 feet 5 inches diameter, are of Dutch workmanship of the seventeenth century. They are large and fine of their kind.
The tower contains four bells. Three of these were given by Bishop Maxwell. The great bell (3 feet 5½ inches diameter and 2 feet 9 inches high) has, on a raised shield, the Bishop’s arms, a saltier, with annulet in centre, and under it “NLTAS.” Also the following inscription:—“Made by Master Robbert Maxvell, Bischop of Orkney the yaer of God MDXXVIII the year of the reign of King James the V., Robert Borthwik made mein the castel of Edinbrugh.” There is also in a medallion, containing in seven lines, the following:—“Taken et brought againe heir by Alexander Geddus marchant in Kirkwa and recasten at Amsterdam Jully 1682 years by Claudius Fremy city bell caster. It weighs 1450 P.” On a medallion, a figure with a sword, and, under it SCT MAGNVS. The latter inscription shows that this bell was sent to Amsterdam
to be recast, which was required, in consequence of a crack or rift having occurred in it.
The second bell (3 feet 1 inch diameter and 2 feet 5 inches high) bears the following inscription in black letters:—“Maid be maister robert maxvell bischop of Orknay in ye secund yier of his consecration in the zier of god Im Vc XXVIII zeiris ye XV zier of ye reign of King James V.” On a medallion is a figure with a sword, and, under it, “Sanctus Magnus.” Below, “robert borthvik.” Also, on a medallion, the arms of Scotland, and on another, the arms of Maxwell, and on another part, “Ihs.”
The first bell is 2 feet 9 inches diameter and 2 feet 5 inches high. The inscription, in black letters, raised in three lines, is, “Maid be maister robert maxvel byschop of Orknay, ye secund zeir of his consecration ye zeir of gode Im Vc XXVIII zeirs ye XV zeir of Kyng James y V. be robert borthvik maid al thre in ye castel of Edynbrugh.” There are also, on a medallion, a figure of St. Magnus, on a shield the arms of Maxwell, as before, and on another part, “Ihs.” Robert Borthwick, above mentioned, was master gunner to King James IV.
The fourth bell is small (1 foot 8 inches diameter and 1 foot 4 inches high), and is not hung. (See description of St. Magnus by Sir Henry E. L. Dryden, Bart.)
The fabric of the cathedral does not appear to have suffered at the time of the Reformation, but in 1606 an attempt was made by the Earl of Caithness to destroy it. This happened during the rebellion of E. Patrick Stewart, who had taken possession of the Tower, and used it as a place of strength. The demolition was, however, prevented by the intervention of Bishop Law.
The building would appear, in 1701, to have received very improper usage at the hands of the Town Guard, who occupied it as a public place, shooting guns and “drinking, fiddling, piping, swearing and cursing night and day” within the church, and so rendering it unfit for public worship. Great repairs were required in the early part of this century, and the Government, under the belief that the cathedral was Crown property, expended a good deal of money in putting it in good condition in 1848. It was afterwards discovered that the building belonged to the town, when the local authorities took possession of it and replaced in the choir the galleries which had been removed. The choir still continues to be used as the parish church.
This interesting ruin stands in a remote valley near the south end of the island of Bute, being about three miles south from the parish church of Kingarth. The site is at a considerable elevation, and commands a fine view of the hills of Arran to the south. A lofty and precipitous wooded hill shelters the valley from the northwards. The building stands on a slightly elevated platform, enclosed with a retaining wall. This enclosure forms an upper churchyard, while another enclosure below it forms a lower churchyard. In former times the upper burial-ground was reserved for men, and the lower one for women.
At first sight the structure at once impresses one as being a Norman building (Fig. 248), from the style of the masonry of the lofty central wall and the east end, which stand out prominently from amongst the ruins. On closer inspection, the church is found to consist (Fig. 249) of an oblong nave, 50 feet 6 inches in length internally by 16 feet 8 inches in width, and a chancel, 26 feet 3 inches long by 13 feet 11 inches wide, separated by the lofty wall above referred to. The latter contains a chancel arch, 5 feet 3 inches in width.
The masonry of the nave is undoubtedly Norman, being in courses of carefully-dressed freestone, with upright joints all breaking band. The west wall has, on account of the slope of the ground, been brought up from a depth of several feet below the level of the floor, and the lower portion is thickened, and has exterior set-offs about the floor level. A base of peculiar form is carried round the building. (See Figs. 248 and 249.) The side and west walls are now reduced to a few feet in height, and there thus remains no trace of any windows. There have been two entrance doorways, opposite one another, in the north and south walls near the west end, of which only some fragments remain.
The chancel arch (Fig. 250) is of good Norman design. On the side next the nave it is in two orders, the inner order having a simple linear or, perhaps, bird’s-beak enrichment, and the outer order is enriched with two series of chevrons, one on the face and the other on the soffit, which leave on the angle a raised lozenge form between them. The arch is enclosed with a label of three-sided section, enriched with a lozenge pattern, and having a small Greek cross in the centre of the arch. Each order rests on the cap of a shaft, the inner shafts being half-rounds, and the outer shafts complete cylinders set in nooks; but these shafts have now disappeared. The caps vary in design, but are of good Norman character.
The bases are much decayed. The abacus of the shafts forms a string course, which was continued round the interior of the nave. It is carved with a saltier-like ornament. A similar string course probably ran round the exterior of the nave. The side of the arch next the chancel is plain, the outer order only having a simple roll on the edge. (See Fig. 248.) The central wall between the nave and chancel is in good preservation, and is carried up with freestone courses resembling the ashlar work of the nave; but the work is coarse, and has probably been rebuilt. Three buttresses, built with whinstone, have been erected at a late period against the south wall of the nave, which seems to have shown signs of weakness.
The Norman masonry of the nave extends both on the north and south sides for about 13 feet into the chancel, when it stops suddenly against a whinstone wall. A fragment of the Norman string course is traceable on the exterior of the north wall at the west end, and the same base as that of the nave runs along this Norman part of the chancel. There are the remains of a doorway in the south wall.
The remainder or eastern portions of the side walls of the choir are composed in their lower part of whinstone rubble work (both on the exterior and interior), while the upper portions of the side walls are built with freestone, similar to that used in the nave, but executed with very inferior workmanship, especially as regards the jointing and coursing of
the stones. The lower rubble portions of the side walls contain no openings, but the upper freestone portions contain windows. The window in the north wall (see Fig. 248.) is a single-pointed light, with freestone ingoings and sconsion arch. There has at one time been a similar one-light window in the south wall, but at a later date a two-light window has been introduced instead of it. The latter being placed at a higher level than the former, part of the older window still remains below the sill of the later one. The older windows in the side walls are moulded on the jambs; the later one is splayed. A piscina has also been inserted in the south wall close to the window.
The eastern wall of the chancel, like the east portions of the side walls, has the lower part built with whinstone rubble, and the upper portion with freestone. As the ground slopes to the east, the east end wall is carried deeper than the side walls. The lower portion (which extends also for a short way along the north and south sides) is brought up with whinstone rubble for about two feet (see Fig. 248.), when a
freestone splayed base (quite different from, and at a lower level than, that of the nave) is laid above it. The wall over the base is carried up in the interior with whinstone rubble for nearly four feet (see Fig. 250.), and on the exterior with rubble mixed with freestone for two courses. Above this the wall is built in the interior for two courses, and in the exterior for four courses, with carefully-constructed and jointed freestone blocks, similar to those of the nave walls. A set-off occurs on the exterior above these courses. The upper part of the wall and the exterior of the gable are composed of freestone, built irregularly, like the upper portions of the side walls. The upper portion of the interior is of similar work up to the top of the windows, above which it is of rubble work.
In the east wall there are two single-light pointed windows, similar to the window in the north wall. They have the same mouldings, and similar sconsion arches. The inner sills are stepped in three courses. An ambry is inserted in the east wall.
There is some difficulty in explaining the sequence of the construction, and the comparative dates of all the different portions of the chancel.
In a paper by Mr. William Galloway, in the Archæologia Scotica, Vol. V. p. 217, a very interesting and ingenious theory is propounded thereanent. It is there supposed that the whinstone rubble work is actually a portion of an ancient chapel erected at a very early date, and that the Norman work was built around it, in order, so far as possible, to preserve the venerable remains of the primitive structure. This, it is pointed out, would explain the finely coursed work which occurs above the rubble work on the exterior and interior of the east end wall and adjoining portions of the north and south walls. As regards the inferior freestone work of the upper part of the walls, it is assumed that these are the result of an alteration which took place in the thirteenth century.
If this theory were correct, it would enhance very greatly the interest of the structure, not only by the extreme antiquity it would assign to it, but also by proving the great veneration with which it was regarded, and the unusual tenderness with which it was treated by the twelfth century builders.
It must, however, be confessed that an inspection of the building does not tend to confirm the theory. Several points arise which do not appear to be met by it, such as—(1) How does the splayed freestone base of the east end happen to be laid in the middle of the rubble work? Such a base is practically unknown in ancient Celtic structures. (2) On the north wall of the choir a string course and moulded base exist in the Norman portion, and have apparently run along the outside. Would these simply be butted against the supposed ancient rubble work, or how would they be terminated? (3) Is it at all consistent with the usual action of Norman builders to leave small fragments of ancient rubble work and incorporate them in their structures? Or was it not, on the contrary, their invariable practice to remove such early work? Is it not more reasonable to suppose that the different styles of work which are seen here are the result of alterations and repairs? A study of the building itself certainly tends to strengthen that impression. After a careful inspection of the structure, one feels it impossible to believe that the different portions of the work were other than the result of alteration and patching. It is admitted that the matter is rather puzzling; but we venture to make the following suggestions as to the history of the building.
The chancel was probably all built originally in the Norman style of its existing west half. Some accident overtook it, and the east half was demolished. In rebuilding it whinstone rubble work was chiefly used, but a splayed freestone base course was inserted, where it still remains. The Norman-like courses above the rubble work were derived from the old materials of the demolished Norman portion, and were reused without alteration, as nearly as possible, in the same manner as originally.
It is generally supposed that the imperfect work of the upper portions of the walls is of thirteenth century date, but it is more probably much later. The irregular and inferior workmanship alone seems to prove that, and the windows are of a form which might belong to any date. The sconsion arches are not unlike those of the church at Rothesay, which is not earlier than the end of the fifteenth century.
This edifice is the completest of our Norman parish churches, consisting (Fig. 251) of a chancel with eastern apse and a nave or main building, separated from the chancel by an elaborate chancel arch. As usual in parish churches of this period, there are no aisles. Although the above divisions are complete, the church has not entirely escaped alterations and additions. On the north side projecting wings have been added, which contain a gallery and a north porch, and staircase leading to the gallery. The south front and east end are, however, almost untouched, and show the work of the twelfth century, uninjured save by natural decay.
The church stands beside the quiet and pleasant rural village of Dalmeny, about one mile inland from South Queensferry, and about eight miles west from Edinburgh. Little is known of its history. A charter is signed by Robert Avenel, “parson of Dumanie,” about 1166-82, and in the thirteenth century, during the reign of William or Alexander II., the church was granted to the monks of Jedworth. It is believed to have been dedicated to St. Adamnan,[170] and the fact of the neighbouring church of Cramond being dedicated to St. Columba tends to confirm this belief, as it has been pointed out by Dr. Skene that these two saints’ names are generally found together in the dedication of churches.
The edifice consists of a nave 42 feet long by 18 feet wide, with a projection in the south wall, which contains the doorway. It has three small windows in the south wall. In the interior of the south wall there is a recess, now linteled over, which may have contained a monument.
From the rough nature of the masonry at the west end of the nave, a tower would appear to have been intended to be built there. Part of the commencement of its side walls exists, and into these the two buttresses shown on Plan have been toothed or joined at a later period.
The nave (Fig. 252) opens to the chancel with a splendid chancel arch, having three orders decorated with elaborate chevron ornaments, enclosed with a hood moulding carved with an enrichment somewhat resembling the dog-tooth (Fig. 253). The soffit of the arch contains a similar faceted enrichment. The arch is carried on three attached shafts on each side, built in ashlar, and provided with subdivided cushion caps and plain bases.
The chancel (Fig. 254) is 16 feet long by 15 feet wide, and is vaulted with bold diagonal groin-ribs, enriched with chevron ornaments and springing from grotesque corbels (Fig. 255). It has one small window on the south side, with plain splay in the ingoing and plain sconsions and arch.
The apse is semi-circular, and is entered from the chancel by an
enriched arch (see Fig. 254.). The arch has two orders carved with chevron ornaments and a hood mould with faceted enrichment. The shafts and caps are similar to those of the chancel arch. The apse is vaulted like a single square bay, with boldly moulded groin-ribs springing from large corbels carved with grotesque heads (Figs. 256 and 257). The wall is of
plain ashlar, and the apse is lighted by three plain window openings (Fig. 258), the central one of which has been enlarged.
The exterior of the church (Fig. 259) is built with the usual cubic ashlar of the period. All the windows in the building (Fig. 260) have a single pair of shafts with cushion or carved caps, and an arch, of one order, carved with chevron ornament, and a hood mould enriched with faceted patterns. The choir and apse have a boldly projected cornice supported on corbels carved with grotesque heads. The choir has the side walls carried up in the form of a parapet above the cornice, having evidently been raised at some period to the same height externally as the nave. A string course runs round the building immediately below the windows, of which it forms the sills. It is enriched with a carved floral pattern.
The doorway (Fig. 261) is placed in a projecting part of the south wall, and is surmounted by an arcade of interlacing arches, with corbel course above, carved with grotesque heads.
The doorway has two nook shafts on each side, the outer one round
and the inner one octagonal. These are detached and in single stones. They carry enriched caps, three of them having foliage and volutes imitated from the Roman, and one with traces of an animal. A string course, enriched with scrolls, forms an abacus above the caps, and from the abacus spring the arch mouldings in two orders, with carved hood mould beyond.
The inner order of arches contains thirteen voussoirs, each of which is sculptured with a figure. These figures (Fig. 262) are very similar to those often found on the ancient sculptured monuments of Scotland, and have also considerable analogy with the figures carved on the Norman churches of England and on the Continent, thus indicating (as pointed out in the Introduction) the connection between the former and the latter. Commencing at the right-hand voussoir of the inner order, we have (No. 1) a clear representation of the Agnus Dei, bearing the cross in sign of victory; No. 2 seems to represent a serpent, possibly with a human head; No. 3 represents a winged quadruped with a bird’s head; No. 4, a lion (a favourite emblem both in Norman work and Scottish monuments); Nos. 5 and 6 are too much decayed to be intelligible; No. 7 seems
to be a hare running and an animal with scrolled tail at rest; No. 8, a winged bird and serpent; No. 9, a winged dragon with tail passing into a divided scroll, part of which it is biting with its bill; No. 10, a winged griffin; No. 11, a bird with a fish’s tail pecking at a serpent; No. 12, two
seated human figures clasping hands; No. 13, a nondescript bird and serpent.
The outer order of the arch contains eight projecting heads of grotesque form, but some of them much decayed. Alternating with these heads are voussoirs carved with figures somewhat similar to those of the inner order. These, so far as can be made out, are—No. 1, a man with a pair of horses; No. 2, a lion, perhaps crowned; No. 3 seems to represent a number of darts radiating from a centre; No. 4, a centaur or Sagittarius shooting an arrow at an undefined object; No. 5, two seated
figures, one holding a spear or pastoral staff. At each side of the arch, and resting on the string course, are two detached figures, which recall the figures similarly placed at Whithorn Priory. That on the right represents a man holding a spear, that on the left, although apparently a human figure, is too far gone to be clearly made out.
This doorway is particularly interesting from being, as we believe, the only example in Scotland of similar well-preserved sculptures upon a church. In England, as pointed out by Mr. Romilly Allen, sculpture
of this description is common on Norman structures after 1135, especially on doorways and fonts. It is difficult to form an idea of the meaning of many of these sculptured figures, occurring, as they do, in the strangest juxtaposition. On this point Mr. Romilly Allen observes[171] that “one of the most remarkable features in Norman sculpture is the way in which the Agnus Dei is associated with what appears to us to be the most incongruous surroundings, such as animals, serpents, and a bird at Parwich in Derbyshire; animals and a figure holding a pastoral staff at Hagnaston in Derbyshire; a tree with birds and Sagittarius and Leo at Stoke Subhampton in Somersetshire, &c.” Such descriptions would well apply
to the doorway of Dalmeny Church, where we have associated with the Agnus Dei, Leo, Sagittarius, serpents, birds, dragons, and human figures, one, perhaps, bearing a pastoral staff.
Numerous similar figures may be also seen on the sculptured monuments
of Scotland, and thus a connection is observed between these remarkable erections and the sculpture of Norman buildings, which brings the earlier monuments into close connection with the later, and provides them a place in the general history of art in the country. Sculptures of a similar description have, at one time, existed at Dunfermline and Jedburgh, but they are now too far wasted away to be intelligible.
Situated four and a half miles from St. Andrews, and one mile from Leuchars Railway Junction, this church, like that of Dalmeny, forms one of the best-preserved examples of our parish churches of the Norman period. Though not complete, like Dalmeny, the choir and apse of Leuchars, which alone remain, are even more richly decorated with the
characteristic ornaments of the style than the former. As usual, the church is without aisles.
It is scarcely possible to ascertain the date of these early structures, but we find from the registry of the Priory of St. Andrews that the Ecclesia de Lochres existed in the year 1187. There are letters by Orabile, Countess of Mar, attesting that she was present when her father,
Nes, the son of William, gave the Church of Leuchars, in Fife (Lochres), to the Canons of St. Andrews, 1171-1199.
Orabile was married to Robert de Quinci. Between 1210 and 1219 Syer de Quinci, Earl of Winchester, gave to the Canons of St. Andrews three merks of silver yearly from his mill of Leuchars for the souls of his
grandfather and grandmother, of his father, Robert de Quinci, and his mother, Orabile.[172]
The church (Fig. 263) now consists of a choir, 19 feet 9 inches long by 18 feet wide, with a circular apse, 12 feet 6 inches wide and 12 feet deep. There are traces of an arch at the west end of the choir, which opened into the nave; but the latter is now rebuilt.
The general view (Fig. 264) shows the exterior of the semi-circular apse, with its arcade of two stories, the shafts of the upper tier resting on the arches of the lower one, and all the shafts bearing cushion caps. Those of the lower story are double shafts, and those of the upper story are double