THE
PREACHING OF ISLAM
Title: The Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith
Author: Sir Thomas Walker Arnold
Release date: December 17, 2021 [eBook #66960]
Most recently updated: October 18, 2024
Language: English
Credits: Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net/ for Project Gutenberg.
TO
SIR THEODORE MORISON, K.C.I.E.
TO WHOM THE FIRST EDITION OWES ITS EXISTENCE
THIS SECOND EDITION IS DEDICATED
IN TOKEN OF LONG FRIENDSHIP
[vii]
It is with considerable diffidence that I publish these pages; the subject with which they deal is so vast, and I have had to prosecute it under circumstances so disadvantageous, that I can hope but for small measure of success. When I may be better equipped for the task, and after further study has enabled me to fill up the gaps1 left in the present work, I hope to make it a more worthy contribution to this neglected department of Muhammadan history; and to this end I shall be deeply grateful for the criticisms and corrections of any scholars who may deign to notice the book. To such I would say in the words of St. Augustine: “Qui hæc legens dicit, intelligo quidem quid dictum sit, sed non vere dictum est; asserat ut placet sententiam suam, et redarguat meam, si potest. Quod si cum caritate et veritate fecerit, mihique etiam (si in hac vita maneo) cognoscendum facere curaverit, uberrimum fructum laboris huius mei cepero.”2
As I can neither claim to be an authority nor a specialist on any of the periods of history dealt with in this book, and as many of the events referred to therein have become matter for controversy, I have given full references to the sources consulted; and here I have thought it better to err on the side of excess rather than that of defect. I have myself suffered so much inconvenience and wasted so much time in hunting up references to books indicated in some obscure or unintelligible manner, that I would desire to spare others a similar annoyance; and while to the general reader I may appear guilty of pedantry, I may perchance save trouble to some scholar who wishes to test the accuracy of a statement or pursue any part of the subject further.
The scheme adopted in this book for the transliteration of Arabic words is that laid down by the Transliteration Committee of the Tenth International Congress of Orientalists, held at Geneva in 1894, with the exception that the last letter of the article is assimilated to the so-called solar [viii]letters. In the case of geographical names this scheme has not been so rigidly applied—in many instances because I could not discover the original Arabic form of the word, in others (e.g. Mecca, Medina), because usage has almost created for them a prescriptive title.
Though this work is confessedly, as explained in the Introduction, a record of missionary efforts and not a history of persecutions,3 I have endeavoured to be strictly impartial and to conform to the ideal laid down by the Christian historian4 who chronicled the successes of the Ottomans and the fall of Constantinople: οὔτε πρὸς χάριν οὔτε πρὸς φθόνον, ἀλλ’ οὐδὲ πρὸς μῖσος ἢ καὶ πρὸς εὔνοιαν συγγράφειν χρεών ἐστι τὸν συγγράφοντα, ἀλλ’ ἱστορίας μόνον καὶ τοῦ μή λήθης βυθῷ παραδοθῆναι, ἣν ὁ χρόνος οἶδε γεννᾶν, τὴν ἱστορίαν.
I desire to thank Her Excellency the Princess Barberini; His Excellency the Prince Chigi; the Most Rev. Dr. Paul Goethals, Archbishop of Calcutta; the Right Rev. Fr. Francis Pesci, Bishop of Allahabad; the Rev. S. S. Allnutt, of the Cambridge Mission, Dehli; the Trustees of Dr. Williams’s Library, Gordon Square, London, for the liberal use they have allowed me of their respective libraries.
I am under an especial debt of gratitude to James Kennedy, Esq., late of the Bengal Civil Service, who has never ceased to take a kindly interest in my book, though it has almost exemplified the Horatian precept, Nonum prematur in annum; to his profound scholarship and wide reading I have been indebted for much information that would otherwise have remained unknown to me, nor do I owe less to the stimulus of his enthusiastic love of learning and his helpful sympathy. I am also under a debt of gratitude to the kindness of Conte Ugo Balzani, but for whose assistance certain parts of my work would have been impossible to me. To the late Professor Robertson Smith I am indebted for valuable suggestions as to the lines of study on which the history of the North African Church and the condition of the Christians under Muslim rule, should be worked out; the profound regret which all Semitic scholars feel at his loss is to me intensified by the thought that this is the only acknowledgment I am able to make of his generous help and encouragement. [ix]
I desire also to acknowledge my obligations to Sir Sayyid Aḥmad K͟hān Bahādur, K.C.S.I., LL.D.; to my learned friend and colleague, Shamsu-l ʻUlamāʼ Mawlawī Muḥammad Shiblī Nuʻmānī, who has assisted me most generously out of the abundance of his knowledge of early Muhammadan history; and to my former pupil, Mawlawī Bahādur ʻAlī, M.A.
Lastly, and above all, must I thank my dear wife, but for whom this work would never have emerged out of a chaos of incoherent materials, and whose sympathy and approval are the best reward of my labours.
Aligarh, 1896. [xi]
The first edition of this book having been out of print for several years and frequent inquiries having been made for copies, this new edition has been prepared and an effort has been made to revise the work in the light of the fresh materials that have accumulated during the last sixteen years; but I can make no claim to have made myself acquainted with the whole of the vast literature on the subject, in upwards of ten different languages, which has been published during this interval. The growing interest in Islam and the various branches of study connected with it, may be estimated from the fact that since 1906 five periodicals have made their appearance devoted to investigations cognate to the subject-matter of the present work, viz. Revue du Monde Musulman, publiée par La Mission Scientifique du Maroc (Paris, 1906– ); Der Islam, Zeitschrift für Geschichte und Kultur des islamischen Orients (Strassburg, 1910– ); The Moslem World, a quarterly review of current events, literature, and thought among Mohammedans, and the progress of Christian Missions in Moslem lands (London, 1911– ); Mir Islama (St. Petersburg, 1912– ); and Die Welt des Islams, Zeitschrift der deutschen Gesellschaft für Islamkunde (Berlin, 1913– ). The Christian missionary societies are also now devoting increased attention to the subject of Muslim missionary activity and accordingly it takes up a proportionately larger place in their publications than before.
This second edition would have been completed several years ago but for the illiberal policy which closes the Reading Room of the British Museum at 7 o’clock and has thus made it practically inaccessible to me except on Saturdays.1 I therefore desire to express my grateful thanks to those friends who have facilitated my labours by the loan of books from the Libraries of the University of Leiden and the University of Utrecht (through the kind offices of [xii]Professor Wensinck), and the École des Langues Orientales Vivantes, Paris;—to Mr. J. A. Oldham, editor of The International Review of Missions, I am indebted for the loan of volumes of the Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift, a set of which I have been unable to find in London; my thanks are specially due to Dr. F. W. Thomas, who has allowed me to study for lengthy periods (along with other books from the India Office Library) the monumental Annali dell’ Islam by Leone Caetani, Principe di Teano,—a work of inestimable value for the early history of Islam, but unfortunately placed out of the reach of the average scholar by reason of its great cost.
I am also much indebted for several valuable indications to those scholars who reviewed the book when it first appeared,—above all, to Professor Goldziher, whose sympathetic interest in this work has encouraged me to continue it.
London, 1913. [xiii]
CHAPTER I.
PAGE
A missionary religion defined. Islam a missionary religion; its extent. The Qurʼān enjoins preaching and persuasion, and forbids violence and force in the conversion of unbelievers. The present work a history of missions, not of persecutions 1
CHAPTER II.
STUDY OF THE LIFE OF MUḤAMMAD CONSIDERED AS A PREACHER OF ISLAM.
Muḥammad the type of the Muslim missionary. Account of his early efforts at propagating Islam, and of the conversions made in Mecca before the Hijrah. Persecution of the converts, and migration to Medina. Condition of the Muslims in Medina: beginning of the national life of Islam. Islam offered (a) to the Arabs, (b) to the whole world. Islam declared in the Qurʼān to be a universal religion,—as being the primitive faith delivered to Abraham. Muḥammad as the founder of a political organisation. The spread of Islam and the efforts made to convert the Arabs after the Hijrah. The ideals of Islam and those of Pre-Islamic Arabia contrasted 11
CHAPTER III.
THE SPREAD OF ISLAM AMONG THE CHRISTIAN NATIONS OF WESTERN ASIA.
The Arab conquests and expansion of the Arab race after the death of Muḥammad. Conversion of Christian Bedouins. Causes of the early successes of the Muslims. Toleration extended to those who remained Christian.—The settled population of the towns: failure of Heraclius’s attempt to reconcile the contending Christian sects. The Arab conquest of Syria and Palestine: their toleration: the Ordinance of ʻUmar: jizyah paid in return for protection and in lieu of military service. Condition of the Christians under Muslim rule: they occupy high posts, build new churches: revival in the Nestorian Church. Causes of their conversion to Islam: revolt against Byzantine ecclesiasticism: influence of rationalistic thought: imposing character of Muslim civilisation. Persecutions suffered by the Christians. Proselytising efforts. Details of conversion to Islam.—Account of conversions from among the Crusaders.—The Armenian and Georgian Churches 45 [xiv]
CHAPTER IV.
THE SPREAD OF ISLAM AMONG THE CHRISTIAN NATIONS OF AFRICA.
Egypt: conquered by the Arabs, who are welcomed by the Copts as their deliverers from Byzantine rule. Condition of the Copts under the Muslims. Corruption and negligence of the clergy lead to conversions to Islam.—Nubia: relations with Muhammadan powers: gradual decay of the Christian faith.—Abyssinia: the Arabs on the sea-board: missionary efforts in the fourteenth century: invasion of Aḥmad Grāñ: conversions to Islam: progress of Islam in recent years.—Northern Africa: extent of Christianity in North Africa in the seventh century: the Christians are said to have been forcibly converted: reasons for thinking that this statement is not true: toleration enjoyed by the Christians: gradual disappearance of the Christian Church 102
CHAPTER V.
THE SPREAD OF ISLAM AMONG THE CHRISTIANS OF SPAIN.
Christianity in Spain before the Muslim conquest: miserable condition of the Jews and the slaves. Early converts to Islam. Corruption of the clergy. Toleration of the Arabs, and influence of their civilisation on the Christians, who study Arabic and adopt Arab dress and manners. Causes of conversion to Islam. The voluntary martyrs of Cordova. Extent of the conversions 131
CHAPTER VI.
THE SPREAD OF ISLAM AMONG THE CHRISTIAN NATIONS IN EUROPE UNDER THE TURKS.
Relations of the Turks to their Christian subjects during the first two centuries of their rule: toleration extended to the Greek Church by Muḥammad II: the benefits of Ottoman rule: its disadvantages, the tribute-children, the capitation-tax, tyranny of individuals. Forced conversion rare. Proselytising efforts made by the Turks. Circumstances that favoured the spread of Islam: degraded condition of the Greek Church: failure of the attempt to Protestantise the Greek Church: oppression of the Greek clergy: moral superiority of the Ottomans: imposing character of their conquests. Conversion of Christian slaves.—Islam in Albania, conquest of the country, independent character of its people, gradual decay of the Christian faith, and its causes;—in Servia, alliance of the Servians with the Turks, conversions mainly from among the nobles except in Old Servia;—in Montenegro;—in Bosnia, the Bogomiles, points of similarity between the Bogomilian heresy and the Muslim creed, conversion to Islam;—in Crete, conversion in the ninth century, oppression of the Venetian rule, conquered by the Turks, conversions to Islam 145 [xv]
CHAPTER VII.
THE SPREAD OF ISLAM IN PERSIA AND CENTRAL ASIA.
Religious condition of Persia at the time of the Arab conquest. Islam welcomed by many sections of the population. Points of similarity between the older faiths and Islam. Toleration. Conversions to Islam. The Ismāʻīlians and their missionary system. Islam in Central Asia and Afghanistān 206
CHAPTER VIII.
THE SPREAD OF ISLAM AMONG THE MONGOLS AND TATARS.
Account of the Mongol conquests. Buddhism, Christianity and Islam in rivalry for the allegiance of the Mongols. Their original religion, Shamanism, described. Spread of Buddhism, of Christianity, and of Islam respectively among the Mongols. Difficulties that stood in the way of Islam. Cruel treatment of the Muslims by some Mongol rulers. Early converts to Islam. Baraka K͟hān, the first Mongol prince converted. Conversion of the Īlk͟hāns. Conversion of the Chag͟hatāy Mongols. History of Islam under the Golden Horde: Ūzbek K͟hān: failure of attempts to convert the Russians. Spread of Islam in modern times in the Russian Empire. The conversion of the Tatars of Siberia 218
CHAPTER IX.
Distribution of the Muhammadan population. Part taken by the Muhammadan rulers in the propagation of Islam: conversion of Rajputs and others.—The work of the Muslim missionaries in India; traditions of early missionary efforts in South India, forced conversions under Ḥaydar ʻAlī and Tīpū Sulṭān, the Mappillas:—in the Maldive Islands:—in the Deccan, early Arab settlements, labours of individual missionaries:—in Sind, the rule of the Arabs, their toleration, account of individual missionaries, conversion of the Khojahs and Bohras:—in Bengal, the Muhammadan rule in this province, extensive conversions of the lower castes, religious revival in recent times.—Particular account of the labours of Muslim missionaries in other parts of India. Propagationist movements of modern times. Circumstances facilitating the progress of Islam: the oppressiveness of the Hindu caste system, worship of Muslim saints, etc.—Spread of Islam in Kashmīr and Tibet 254
CHAPTER X.
Early notices of Islam in China. Intercourse of the Chinese with the Arabs. Legendary account of the first introduction of Islam into China. Muslims under the Tʼang dynasty: influence of the Mongol conquest; Islam under the Ming dynasty. Relations of the Chinese Muslims to the Chinese Government. Their efforts to spread their religion 294 [xvi]
CHAPTER XI.
THE SPREAD OF ISLAM IN AFRICA.
The Arabs in Northern Africa: conversion of the Berbers: the mission of ʻAbd Allāh b. Yāsīn. Introduction of Islam into the Sudan: rise of Muhammadan kingdoms: account of missionary movements, Danfodio, ʻUt͟hmān al-Amīr G͟hanī, the Qādiriyyah, the Tijāniyyah, and the Sanūsiyyah. Spread of Islam on the West Coast: Ashanti: Dahomey. Spread of Islam on the East Coast: early Muslim settlements: recent expansion in German East Africa: the Galla: the Somali. Islam in Cape Coast Colony. Account of the Muslim missionaries in Africa and their methods of winning converts 312
CHAPTER XII.
THE SPREAD OF ISLAM IN THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO.
Early intercourse between the Malay Archipelago and Arabia and India. Methods of missionary work. History of Islam in Sumatra; in the Malay Peninsula; in Java; in the Moluccas; in Borneo; in Celebes; in the Philippine and the Sulu Islands; among the Papuans. The Muslim missionaries: traders: ḥājīs 363
CHAPTER XIII.
Absence of missionary organisation in Islam: zeal on the part of individuals. Who are the Muslim missionaries? Causes that have contributed to their success: the simplicity of the Muslim creed: the rationalism and ritualism of Islam. Islam not spread by the sword. The toleration of Muhammadan governments. Circumstances contributing to the progress of Islam in ancient and in modern times 408
APPENDIX I.
Letter of al-Hāshimī inviting al-Kindī to embrace Islam 428
APPENDIX II.
Controversial literature between Muslims and the followers of other faiths 436
APPENDIX III.
Muslim missionary societies 438