The following is the text of al-Hāshimī’s letter inviting al-Kindī to embrace Islam:—“In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. I have begun this letter with the salutation of peace and blessing after the fashion of my lord and the lord of the prophets, Muḥammad, the Apostle of God (may the peace and mercy of God be upon him!). For those trustworthy, righteous and truthful persons who have handed down to us the traditions of our Prophet (peace be upon him!) have related this tradition concerning him that such was his habit and that whenever he began to converse with men he would commence with the salutation of peace and blessing and made no distinction of d͟himmīs and illiterate, between Muslims and polytheists, saying ‘I am sent to be kind and considerate to all men and not to deal roughly or harshly with them,’ and quoting the words of God, ‘Verily God is kind and merciful to believers.’ Likewise I have observed that those of our K͟halīfahs that I have met, followed the footsteps of their Prophet in courtesy, nobility, graciousness and beneficence, and made no distinctions in this matter and preferred none before another. So I have followed this excellent way and have begun my letter with the salutation of peace and blessing, that I be blamed of none who sees my letter.
“I have been guided therein by my affection towards you because my lord and prophet, Muḥammad (may the peace and mercy of God be upon him!) used to say that love of kinsmen is true piety and religion. So I have written this to you in obedience to the Apostle of God (may the peace [429]and mercy of God be upon him!), feeling bound to show gratitude for the services you have done us, and because of the love and affection and inclination that you show towards us, and because of the favour of my lord and cousin the Commander of the Faithful (may God assist him!) towards you and his trust in you and his praise of you. So in all sincerity desiring for you what I desire for myself, my family and my parents, I will set forth the religion that we hold, and that God has approved of for us and for all creatures and for which He has promised a good reward in the end and safety from punishment when unto Him we shall return.… So I have sought to gain for you what I would gain for myself; and seeing your high moral life, vast learning, nobility of character, your virtuous behaviour, lofty qualities and your extensive influence over your co-religionists, I have had compassion on you lest you should continue in your present faith. Therefore I have determined to set before you what the favour of God has revealed to us and to expound unto you our faith with good and gentle speech, following the commandment of God, ‘Dispute not with the people of the book except in the best way.’ (xxix. 45.) So I will discuss with you only in words well-chosen, good and mild; perchance you may be aroused and return to the true path and incline unto the words of the Most High God which He has sent down to the last of the Prophets and lord of the children of Adam, our Prophet Muḥammad (the peace and blessing of God be upon him!). I have not despaired of success, but had hope of it for you from God who showeth the right path to whomsoever He willeth, and I have prayed that He may make me an instrument to this end. God in His perfect book says ‘Verily the religion before God is Islam’ (iii. 17), and again, confirming His first saying, ‘And whoso desireth any other religion than Islam, it shall by no means therefore be accepted from him, and in the next world he shall be among the lost’ (iii. 79), and again He confirms it decisively, when He says, ‘O believers, fear God as He deserveth to be feared; and die not without having become Muslims.’ (iii. 97.)
“And you know—(May God deliver you from the ignorance of unbelief and open your heart to the light of faith!)—[430]that I am one over whom many years have passed and I have sounded the depths of other faiths and weighed them and studied many of their books especially your books.” [Here he enumerates the chief books of the Old and New Testaments, and explains how he has studied the various Christian sects.] “I have met with many monks, famous for their austerities and vast knowledge, have visited many churches and monasteries, and have attended their prayers.… I have observed their extraordinary diligence, their kneeling and prostrations and touching the ground with their cheeks and beating it with their foreheads and humble bearing throughout their prayers, especially on Sunday and Friday nights, and on their festivals when they keep watch all night standing on their feet praising and glorifying God and confessing Him, and when they spend the whole day standing in prayer, continually repeating the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, and in the days of their retreats which they call Holy Week when they stand barefooted in sackcloth and ashes, with much weeping and shedding of tears continually, and wailing with strange cries. I have seen also their sacrifices, with what cleanliness they keep the bread for it, and the long prayers they recite with great humility when they elevate it over the altar in the well-known church at Jerusalem with those cups full of wine, and I have observed also the meditations of the monks in their cells during their six fasts,—i.e. the four greater and the two less, etc. On all such occasions I have been present and observant of the people. Also I have visited their Metropolitans and Bishops, renowned for their learning and their devotion to the Christian faith and extreme austerity in the world, and have discussed with them impartially, seeking for the truth, laying aside all contentiousness, ostentation of learning and imperiousness in altercation and bitterness and pride of race. I have given them opportunity to maintain their arguments and speak out their minds without interruption or browbeating, as is done by the vulgar and illiterate and foolish persons among our co-religionists who have no principle to work up to or reasons on which to rest, or religious feeling or good manners to restrain them from rudeness; their speech is but browbeating and proud [431]altercation and they have no knowledge or arguments except taking advantage of the rule of the government. Whenever I have held discussions with them and asked them to speak freely as their reason, their creed and their conclusion prompted, they have spoken openly and without deception of any kind, and their inward feelings have been laid bare to me as plainly as their outward appearance. So I have written at such length to you (may God show you the better way!) after long consideration and profound inquiry and investigation, so that none may suspect that I am ignorant of the things whereof I write and that all into whose hands this letter may come, may know that I have an accurate knowledge of the Christian faith.
“So, now (may God shower His blessings upon you!) with this knowledge of your religion and so long-standing an affection (for you), I invite you to accept the religion that God has chosen for me and I for myself, assuring you entrance into Paradise and deliverance from Hell. And it is this,—You shall worship the one God, the only God, the Eternal, He begetteth not, neither is He begotten, who hath no consort and no son, and there is none like unto Him. This is the attribute wherewith God has denominated Himself, for none of His creatures could know Him better than He Himself. I have invited you to the worship of this the One God, whose attribute is such, and in this my letter I have added nothing to that wherewith He has denominated Himself (high and exalted be His name above what they associate with Him!). This is the religion of your father and our father, Abraham (may the blessings of God rest upon him!), for he was a Ḥanīf and Muslim.
“Then I invite you (may God have you in His keeping!) to bear witness and acknowledge the prophetic mission of my lord and the lord of the sons of Adam, and the chosen one of the God of all worlds and the seal of the prophets, Muḥammad … sent by God with glad tidings and warnings to all mankind. ‘He it is who hath sent His Apostle with the guidance and a religion of the truth, that He may make it victorious over every other religion, albeit they who assign partners to God be averse from it.’ (ix. 33.) So he invited all men from the East and from the West, from land and sea, from [432]mountain and from plain, with compassion and pity and good words, with kindly manners and gentleness. Then all these people accepted his invitation, bearing witness that he is the apostle of God, the Creator of the worlds, to those who are willing to give heed to admonition. All gave willing assent when they beheld the truth and faithfulness of his words, and sincerity of his purpose, and the clear argument and plain proof that he brought, namely the book that was sent down to him from God, the like of which cannot be produced by men or Jinns. ‘Say: Assuredly if mankind and the Jinns should conspire to produce the like of this Qurʼān, they could not produce its like, though the one should help the other.’ (xvii. 91.) And this is sufficient proof of his mission. So he invited men to the worship of the One God, the only God, the Self-sufficing, and they entered into his religion and accepted his authority without being forced and without unwillingness, but rather humbly acknowledging him and soliciting the light of his guidance, and in his name becoming victorious over those who denied his divine mission and rejected his message and scornfully entreated him. So God set them up in the cities and subjected to them the necks of the nations of men, except those who hearkened to them and accepted their religion and bore witness to their faith, whereby their blood, their property and their honour were safe and they were exempt from humbly paying jizyah.” [He then enumerates the various ordinances of Islam, such as the five daily prayers, the fast of Ramaḍān, Jihād; expounds the doctrine of the resurrection of the dead and the last judgment, and recounts the joys of Paradise and the pains of Hell.] “So I have admonished you: if you believe in this faith and accept whatever is read to you from the revealed Word of God, then you will profit from my admonition and my writing to you. But if you refuse and continue in your unbelief and error and contend against the truth, I shall have my reward, having fulfilled the commandment. And the truth will judge you.” [He then enumerates various religious duties and privileges of the Muslim, and concludes.] “So now in this my letter I have read to you the words of the great and high God, which are the words of the Truth, whose promises [433]cannot fail and in whose words there is no deceit. Then give up your unbelief and error, of which God disapproves and which calls for punishment, and speak no more of Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, these words that you yourself admit to be so confusing: and give up the worship of the cross which brings loss and no profit, for I wish you to turn away from it, since your learning and nobility of soul are degraded thereby. For the great and high God says: ‘Verily, God will not forgive the union of other gods with Himself; but other than this will He forgive to whom He pleaseth. And whoso uniteth gods with God, hath devised a great wickedness.’ (iv. 51.) And again: ‘Surely now are they infidels who say, “God is the Messiah, Son of Mary;” for the Messiah said, “O children of Israel! worship God, my Lord and your Lord.” Verily, those who join other gods with God, God doth exclude from Paradise, and their abode the Fire; and for the wicked no helpers! They surely are infidels who say, “God is a third of three:” for there is no god but one God; and if they refrain not from what they say, a grievous chastisement shall assuredly befall such of them as believe not. Will they not, therefore, turn unto God, and ask pardon of Him? since God is Forgiving, Merciful! The Messiah, Son of Mary, is but an Apostle; other Apostles have flourished before him; and his mother was a just person; they both ate food.’ (v. 76–9.) Then leave this path of error and this long and stubborn clinging to your religion and those burdensome and wearisome fasts which are a constant trouble to you and are of no use or profit and produce nothing but weariness of body and torment of soul. Embrace this faith and take this, the right and easy path, the true faith, the ample law and the way that God has chosen for His favoured ones and to which He has invited the people of all religions, that He may show His kindness and favour to them by guiding them into the true path by means of His guidance, and fill up the measure of His goodness unto men.
“So I have advised you and paid the debt of friendship and sincere love, for I have desired to take you to myself, that you and I may be of the same opinion and the same faith, for I have found my Lord saying in his perfect Book: [434]‘Verily the unbelievers among the people of the Book and among the polytheists, shall go into the fire of Hell to abide therein for ever. Of all creatures they are the worst. But they verily who believe and do the things that are right—these of all creatures are the best. Their recompense with their Lord shall be gardens of Eden, ’neath which the rivers flow, in which they shall abide for evermore. God is well pleased with them, and they with Him. This, for him who feareth his Lord.’ (xcviii. 5–8.) ‘Ye are the best folk that hath been raised up for mankind. Ye enjoin what is just, and ye forbid what is evil, and ye believe in God: and if the people of the book had believed, it had surely been better for them. Believers there are among them, but most of them are disobedient.’ (iii. 106.) So I have had compassion upon you lest you might be among the people of Hell who are the worst of all creatures, and I have hoped that by the grace of God you may become one of the true believers with whom God is well pleased and they with Him, and they are the best of all creatures, and I have hoped that you will join yourself to that religion which is the best of the religions raised up for men. But if you refuse and persist in your obstinacy, contentiousness and ignorance, your infidelity and error, and if you reject my words and refuse the sincere advice I have offered you (without looking for any thanks or reward)—then write whatever you wish to say about your religion, all that you hold to be true and established by strong proof, without any fear or apprehension, without curtailment of your proofs or concealment of your beliefs; for I purpose only to listen patiently to your arguments and to yield to and acknowledge all that is convincing therein, submitting willingly without refusing or rejecting or fear, in order that I may compare your account and mine. You are free to set forth your case; bring forward no plea that fear prevented you from making your arguments complete and that you had to put a bridle on your tongue, so that you could not freely express your arguments. So now you are free to bring forward all your arguments, that you may not accuse me of pride, injustice or partiality: for that is far from me.
“Therefore bring forward all the arguments you wish and [435]say whatever you please and speak your mind freely. Now that you are safe and free to say whatever you please, appoint some arbitrator who will impartially judge between us and lean only towards the truth and be free from the empery of passion: and that arbitrator shall be Reason, whereby God makes us responsible for our own rewards and punishments. Herein I have dealt justly with you and have given you full security and am ready to accept whatever decision Reason may give for me or against me. For ‘there is no compulsion in religion’ (ii. 257) and I have only invited you to accept our faith willingly and of your own accord and have pointed out the hideousness of your present belief. Peace be with you and the mercy and blessings of God!”
There can be very little doubt but that this document has come down to us in an imperfect condition and has suffered mutilation at the hands of Christian copyists: the almost entire absence of any refutation of such distinctively Christian doctrines as that of the Blessed Trinity, and the references to such attacks to be found in al-Kindī’s reply, certainly indicate the excision of such passages as might have given offence to Christian readers.1 [436]
1 Similarly, the Spanish editor of the controversial letters that passed between Alvar and “the transgressor” (a Christian convert to Judaism), adds the following note after Epist. xv.: “Quatuordecim in hac pagina ita abrasae sunt liniae, ut nec verbum unum legi possit. Folium subsequens exsecuit possessor codicis, ne transgressoris deliramenta legerentur.” (Migne, Patr. Lat., tom. cxxi. p. 483.) ↑
Although Islam has had no organised system of propaganda, no tract societies or similar agencies of missionary work, there has been no lack of reasoned presentments of the faith to unbelievers, particularly to Christians and Jews. Of these it is not proposed to give a detailed account here, but it is of importance to draw attention to their existence if only to remove the wide-spread misconception that mass conversion is the prevailing characteristic of the spread of Islam and that individual conviction has formed no part of the propagandist schemes of the Muslim missionary. The beginnings of Muhammadan controversy against unbelievers are to be found in the Qurʼān itself, but from the ninth century of the Christian era begins a long series of systematic treatises of Muhammadan Apologetics, which has been actively continued to the present day. The number of such works directed against the Christian faith has been far more numerous than the Christian refutations of Islam, and some of the ablest of Muslim thinkers have employed their pens in their composition, e.g. Abū Yūsuf b. Isḥāq al-Kindī (A.D. 813–873), al-Masʻūdī (ob. A.D. 958), Ibn Ḥazm (A.D. 994–1064), al-G͟hazālī (ob. A.D. 1111), etc. It is interesting also to note that several renegades have written apologies for their change of faith and in defence of the Muslim creed, e.g. Ibn Jazlah in the eleventh century, Yūsuf al-Lubnānī and Shayk͟h Ziyādah b. Yaḥyạ̄ in the thirteenth, ʻAbd Allāh b. ʻAbd Allāh in the fifteenth, Darwesh ʻAlī in the sixteenth, Aḥmad b. ʻAbd Allāh, an Englishman born at Cambridge, in the seventeenth century, etc. These latter were all Christians before their conversion, [437]but Jewish renegades also, though fewer in number, have been among the apologists of Islam. In India, besides many Muhammadan books written against the Christian religion, there is an enormous number of controversial works against Hinduism: as to whether the Muhammadans have been equally active in other heathen countries, I have no information.
The reader will find a vast store of information on Muslim controversial literature in the following writings: Moritz Steinschneider: Polemische und apologetische Litteratur in arabischer Sprache, zwischen Muslimen, Christen und Juden. (Leipzig, 1877); Ignaz Goldziher: Über Muhammedanische Polemik gegen Ahl al-kitâb (Z.D.M.G., vol. 32, p. 341 ff. 1878); Martin Schreiner: Zur Geschichte der Polemik zwischen Juden und Muhammedanern (Z.D.M.G., vol. 42, p. 591 ff. 1888); W. A. Shedd: Islam and the Oriental Churches, pp. 252–3; Carl Güterbock: Der Islam in Lichte der byzantinischen Polemik. (Berlin, 1912.) [438]
The formation of societies for carrying on a propaganda in an organised and systematic manner is a recent development in the missionary history of Islam—as indeed it is comparatively recent in the history of Christian missions. Such Muslim missionary societies would appear to have been formed in conscious imitation of similar organisations in the Christian world, and are not in themselves the most characteristic expressions of the missionary spirit in Islam. In the Western world there is very little to note. No attempt seems to have been made to form such a society before the latter half of the nineteenth century, and the earliest efforts were attended with little success. When H. M. Stanley in 1875 urged in the English Press the sending of a Christian mission to King Mutesa of Uganda, the wide-spread attention paid to his appeal led to the formation of a missionary society in Constantinople for the propagation of Islam in that country, but no Muhammadan missionaries were ever sent to Uganda, and the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish war in 1878 diverted the attention of the Turks from any such enterprise.1 A similar failure to establish organised missionary effort was manifested when the Anglo-Egyptian Government of the Sudan marked out zones of influence for various Christian missionary societies in districts the natives of which were heathen; some Muslims of Cairo claimed that a part of the territory should be allotted to the followers of Islam; whereupon the Government replied that all they had to do was to send the missionaries and the same facilities would be afforded to them as to the Christian missionaries; but the necessary organisation was lacking and the matter was allowed to drop.2 In 1910 Shayk͟h Rashīd, the editor of al-Manār, founded a missionary society in Cairo, the object of which is to establish a college (entitled Dār al-daʻwah [439]waʼl-irshād) for the training of missionaries and apologists for Islam, who are to be sent primarily into heathen and Christian lands, but also into those Muhammadan countries in which attempts are being made to induce the Muhammadans to abandon their faith.3
But it is in India that there has been the greatest expansion of such organisations. One of the best organised of these is probably the Anjuman Ḥimāyat-i-Islām of Lahore, but propagandist work forms only a small part of the wide field of its activities and it cannot therefore be described as a missionary society pure and simple. The original purpose for which the Anjuman Ḥāmī Islām of Ajmer was founded was to answer the objections urged against Islam by the members of the Ārya Samāj, but it included among its objects the preaching of Islam and the providing of food and clothing to new converts.4 The Anjuman Waʻz̤-i-Islām, as its name denotes, concentrated its efforts on the preaching of Islam, and, while Mawlavī Baqā Ḥusayn K͟hān (p. 283) was its Secretary, published lists of the converts gained—as did also the Anjuman-i-Islām and the Anjuman Tablīg͟h-i-Islām (which aimed at the conversion of the Hindu untouchables) established in Ḥaydarabad (Deccan), but it does not appear that either of these societies continues to exist.5 Among the societies that have been established in the twentieth century are the Madrasa Ilāhiyyāt at Cawnpore, for the training of missionaries and the publication of tracts in defence of Islam and in refutation of attacks made upon it; and the Anjuman Ishāʻat wa Taʻlīm-i-Islām at Baṭālah in the Panjāb, with similar objects. But the largest of these organisations is the Anjuman Hidāyat al-Islām of Dehlī, to which as many as twenty-four other societies,6 in various parts of India, are affiliated; this Anjuman sends out missionaries to preach the doctrines of Islam and to hold controversies with non-Muslims, and publishes controversial literature, especially in refutation of the attacks made by the members of the Ārya Samāj. [440]
(The Titles, etc., of books quoted once only, are given in full in the foot-notes.)
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Abh. f. d. K. d. M. hrsg. v. d. D. M. G.: Abhandlungen für die Kunde des Morgenlandes, herausgegeben von der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft. (Leipzig.)
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Abū Ṣāliḥ: The Churches and Monasteries of Egypt, edited and translated by B. T. A. Evetts. (Oxford, 1895.)
Abū Shāmah: Arabische Quellenbeiträge zur Geschichte der Kreuzzüge übersetzt und herausgegeben von E. P. Goergens und R. Röhricht. Erster Band: Zur Geschichte Ṣalâḥ ad-dîn’s. (Berlin, 1879.)
Abū ʻUbayd al-Bakrī: Fragments de géographes et d’historiens Arabes et Persans inédits, relatifs aux anciens peuples du Caucase et de la Russie méridionale, traduits par C. Defrémery. (J. A. ivme série. Tome xiii, 1849.)
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Adeney (W. F.): The Greek and Eastern Churches. (Edinburgh, 1908.)
Aḥmad b. Yaḥyạ̄ b. al-Murtaḍạ̄: Al-Muʻtazilah, being an extract from the Kitāb al-Milal waʼl-Niḥal, edited by T. W. Arnold. (Leipzig, 1902.)
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——
(2) Indiculus Luminosus. (id. ib.)
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—— (2) Abu’l-Faraj, Taʼrīk͟h Muk͟htaṣar al-Duwal, ed. A. Ṣāliḥānī. (Bairut, 1890.)
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