If the herring-bone cuts were made carefully upon the lower part of the trunk, and attention given to their depth and direction, the tree might be preserved for a longer period. An illustration given shows the incorrect mode of tapping, where the transverse cuts are opposite instead of alternate (Fig. 21). Experiments seem to show that there is not the same “wound response” in the case of Funtumia trees as is found in that of the “Para” tree (Hevea brasiliensis); the paring of the wounds some days after tapping yielding no flow of latex similar to that procured in the first instance. On cutting the bark area between the transverse channels, the latex cells appeared to be empty and to indicate that a large area is drained on the first tapping. Further investigation is necessary in order to compare the results obtained from this tree with those of Hevea.

The latex of Funtumia will remain in an uncoagulated state for a longer time than that of Hevea, but it may become damaged by fermentation if a quantity is kept in bulk for a lengthened period. The native does not usually produce a pure Funtumia rubber, but mixes with the latex the latices of several other plants, among which may be named “Odum” (Chlorophora excelsa), “Osese” (Funtumia africana), “Ofo,” “Okre,” “Sindru” (Conopharyngia crassa and Alstonia sp.). Having mixed some of these latices with that of the Funtumia, the whole is heated and poured into a hole in the ground, which has been prepared to serve as a mould. Coagulation and decomposition proceed together at a slow rate, and finally produce a rubber containing a number of holes which serve as receptacles for the liquefied decomposed constituents. The rubber mass is black outwardly, but whitish within, and is more or less sticky. It is said that the latex of Landolphia owariensis, the vine from which “Krepi ball” rubber is made, is sometimes mixed with the rest to hasten coagulation.

Improved Methods.—In 1906 attention was drawn to the use of a plant called “Niama” in the Ivory Coast, by which Funtumia rubber latex was coagulated by adding a hot decoction of the leaves. This plant was subsequently found to be Bauhinia reticulata, which bears the name of “Otakataka” in the Gold Coast. Experiments with this afforded excellent results. An examination of the plant made at the Imperial Institute proved that the tannin contained in the leaves was responsible for the coagulation of the latex, and that the infusion of any plant containing tannin is equally effective. The obstacle to the general use of B. reticulata for coagulation, is that the plant does not occur in the same localities as the wild Funtumia tree. Doubtless other tannin-yielding plants may be found in the rubber forests which would answer the purpose equally well, among them the pods of Acacia arabica. A simple method of coagulation, which was demonstrated to the chiefs and rubber collectors in 1908, is that of diluting the latex with about four or more times the volume of water, straining and boiling it, when the rubber quickly separates and can be collected from the surface of the water by means of a stick and immediately pressed into a rough biscuit.

The rubber made in the manner mentioned above has been valued at more than twice the price obtained for the adulterated stuff, but it appears difficult to persuade the local merchants to offer a higher price for it, and it therefore suits the rubber collector better to make the inferior quality. So long as this state of things continues, it is to be feared that instruction in the improvement of quality will not lead to the adoption of better methods.

In 1908 a Commission of Enquiry was appointed and made certain recommendations for legislation for the protection of the industry. Articles on Gold Coast rubber will be found in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vols. viii. (1910), x. (1912), xi. (1913), xii. (1914), xii. (1915) and xv. (1917).

Plantations.—Large numbers of Funtumia seedlings have been grown at and distributed from the Government Botanic Gardens at Aburi, Tarkwa, and Kumassi, and some of the Ashanti kings and chiefs, who have expressed a wish to attempt to renovate their rubber forests, have obtained assistance from the officers of the Agricultural Department, who have conducted planting operations in the forests in the presence of those interested. Plantations under European management and with European capital are in progress in the vicinity of Axim and Sekondi. Most of the recently made plantations are said to consist more of Para than of Funtumia rubber trees, although in 1913 one of these in the Dunkwa district of Ashanti was reported to contain 20,000 trees of the latter kind. The tree appears to thrive well when planted closely, and straight trunks are soon formed.

Insect Pest.—At Aburi and elsewhere the Funtumia tree is found to be attacked by the larva of a moth of the family Pyralidæ, identified as Glyphodes ocellata, Hampson, which denudes it of leaves. No severe damage seems to be done by this pest, which has only been observed in plantations, and was destroyed at Aburi by repeated applications of lime and ashes.

Fungoid Pest.—A sooty fungoid growth is sometimes seen upon the leaves, similar to that occurring on orange trees in the country, and probably belongs to the genus Meliola. It is destroyed by the application of sprays of Bordeaux mixture.

Rubber Machinery.—A fully equipped installation of rubber-washing and crêpeing machinery was exhibited at the Kumassi Agricultural Exhibition of 1908, and was subsequently taken over by one of the leading mercantile firms at that place, where the local rubber is now washed, crêped, and pressed before export. It might prove advantageous to come to an arrangement with the rubber collectors to bring the latex to Kumassi, where, under proper supervision, it could be made into rubber of high quality. As the latex will remain for a considerable time without alteration, it should not be difficult to bring it in from places several days’ journey distant.

Vine Rubber.—Several species of vines, belonging to the Natural Order Apocynaceæ, produce rubber in Africa, but the only one of commercial importance occurring in the Gold Coast is Landolphia owariensis, Pal. Beauv., from which “Krepi” or “White ball” is obtained. Unless the plant is observed during the flowering as well as the fruiting season, it is difficult to distinguish it from some nearly allied, but useless, species of the same genus, which are found commonly in the same localities.

The vine is found throughout the forest region of the Gold Coast and Ashanti, climbing over and interlacing the main branches of large forest trees; but an apparently terrestrial form of the same species has recently been discovered in the ultra-forest region, where the stunted habit in which it grows is probably occasioned by the annual grass fires.

Under different atmospheric conditions the latex of L. owariensis behaves differently. In the drier regions it coagulates upon the wound almost immediately upon exposure to the air, whereas in other and moister places it runs from the cut in such a manner as to allow it to be collected in a vessel. The acid juices of some of the local wild fruits are added to hasten coagulation, when this is necessary, or the collector is said to smear the fresh latex upon his naked body, until enough has been coagulated to form a small ball, which serves as a nucleus for winding on the strings of fresh latex as the new cuts are made. There is a quantity of “scrap rubber” formed on the wedge-shaped cuts which it is usual to make, and this is added to the ball, which attains a diameter of three or four inches when complete. The crushing of the root and stem for the manufacture of so-called “root-rubber” does not appear to be practised in this country, although common elsewhere in West Africa.

On account of the colour and form of this rubber, the name of “White ball” is usually applied to it, although, from the fact that the Krepi tribes, living on the east bank of the Volta river, produce a large quantity of it, the name of “Krepi ball” is frequently given.

White ball rubber is seldom adulterated by the addition of other latices, as these would retard coagulation and interfere with the preparation of it in the manner mentioned. For this reason the rubber sold under this name usually obtains a higher price than other rubber.

Landolphia owariensis presents many disadvantages for cultivation in plantations, and the yield is small in proportion to the space which the plant occupies. Several species of this and allied genera are being grown experimentally at the Aburi Botanic Gardens.

“Flake rubber” is a name given to a very inferior quality of rubber which is produced upon a small scale in many parts of West Africa, but it has not been determined from which species of vine that exported from the Gold Coast is obtained. In Northern Nigeria Carpodinus hirsutus, Hua, is said to be the source of the exported rubber of this name.

Fig Rubber.—One or more species of wild fig trees (Ficus sp.) are tapped for the production of what is locally termed “Memeluku” rubber, and it is generally supposed that F. Vogelii is that mostly employed. The trees attain a large size, and the rubber is composed of the scrap, collected from a large number of small cuts made on the trunk and branches. This scrap rubber is pressed together into thick biscuits. The rubber has usually little resiliency and breaks easily; it is, in consequence, of small value.

Introduced Species.—Experiments have been carried on for several years with “Para” rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), “Ceara” (Manihot Glaziovii), and Castilloa elastica, all indigenous to South America. The last-named has been so badly attacked in the Botanic Stations by boring beetle larvæ that it has shown no promise of success. Ceara grows well, but for some reason the production of latex from it is uncertain, and this has caused little value to be attached to it in the Gold Coast, although in the drier region of Togoland this species is being planted. Para rubber seems to show much better results, although, up to the present, no extensive experiments to ascertain the yield of rubber have been made. Tapping two trees growing at Aburi, Mr. Johnson obtained a larger quantity of latex than from Funtumia elastica under the same conditions; and following this an extensive area was planted with Hevea trees at the Tarkwa Botanic Gardens, where the experiment appears to be proving successful. Views are given of a tree at Aburi (Fig. 20). Large plantations of Hevea are being made near Tarkwa, Axim and Sekondi as well as in the Kwahu district, where the tree seems to thrive remarkably well. A few of these plantations made returns in 1913 showing promise of success. At one, on the Offin river, there were said to be 90,000 Para trees of different ages, 20,000 Funtumia and 6,000 coffee (C. robusta). At another the yield of rubber from a number of mature trees gave an average of 1·08 lb. of dry rubber per tree in eight months’ tapping, and a third had 22,000 Para trees of which about 8,450 had been tapped and yielded 10,565 lbs. of rubber, or 1¼ lb. per tree tapped. Labour was reported plentiful and good. There are said to be many more rubber plantations in the country from which returns had not been received. Up to 1913 the Agricultural Department had distributed 250,000 Para seedlings and 1,500,000 seeds.

Commenting on the fluctuation in the exported amounts of rubber, His Excellency the Governor (Sir Hugh Clifford), in his message to the Legislative Council in October 1918, explained the recrudescence during 1916 and 1917 as due to the development of rubber plantations under European control. It remains to be seen whether the Gold Coast will be able to successfully compete in this work with the Far East. Articles on Para rubber from the Gold Coast are to be found in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. x. (1912), vol. xi. (1913), vol. xii. (1914), vol. xv. (1917) and vol. xvii. (1919).

PALM OIL AND KERNELS.—Records are available showing that the export of palm oil from West Africa has continued for over one hundred years, but the quantity shipped from the Gold Coast during the last fifteen years shows a rapid decrease from the average of the twenty years previous.

The tree which yields the oil of commerce is known as Elæis guineensis, Jacq., and is placed in the Tribe Cocoineæ of the Natural Order Palmæ, together with the genus Cocos, to which the Coconut palm belongs. (Cf. Bull. Imp. Inst., 1909, p. 357; 1920, p. 209.)

Habits of the Oil Palm.—The oil palm occurs most plentifully in the moist regions near the coast, although it will not thrive on land which is perpetually marshy. The palm becomes scarcer when the dense forests of Ashanti are reached, but it is not entirely absent until the ultra-forest tract commences.

The tree often bears fruit when it has only attained the height of ten feet, which it is said to do about the seventh year, but the yield is supposed to increase annually until the tree is thirty or more years old, often continuing for a much longer time. It is not possible to give any positive assurance on this point, as observations have not been recorded for any length of time.

Although the oil is principally obtained from wild trees, one extensive plantation in the Krobo Hills has been successfully carried on for many years by the chief of Odumassi. His trees are planted at regular intervals and care is given to their upkeep and cleanliness. Concessions have recently been granted to Europeans for planting as well as exploiting the wild palms, and experimental work in the mechanical extraction of pericarp and kernel oil have given some promise. Two British companies that have erected extraction plants in the Western Province have laid tram-lines designed to keep them constantly supplied with the palm fruit.

Trees that have become old and practically barren are usually tapped for the extraction of “palm wine,” being frequently cut down for the purpose. In some parts of the country fruitful trees are tapped while standing, and, as this necessitates the base of the terminal shoot being cut into, the tree is generally killed in consequence.

Two crops of fruiting heads are yielded by a tree in full bearing each year, but the autumn crop is heavier than the earlier one, and the aggregate weight of fruit yielded by a tree in one year is generally estimated at 40 lbs.

The fruiting heads consist of large bunches which hang from near the crown of the tree, and each fruit is partly enveloped in a husk-like covering. When removed from this it is found to be smooth, somewhat conical or irregularly compressed, tapering towards an abrupt point. The colour when fresh varies from orange-red to nearly white, with a more or less broad black apex. In section it appears to be composed of a thick fibrous layer over a hard, somewhat rounded stone, which contains a whitish kernel. It is from the fibrous portion, which is included in what is botanically termed the pericarp, that the oil is obtained, but the kernel also contains another valuable oil, for the extraction of which it is shipped to Europe to a large extent.

Preparation of Palm Oil.—When the ripe head has been cut from the tree, it is left upon the ground for a few days in order that a shrinkage in the fruits may occur, which renders them more easily dislodged from their husk-lined places. The fruit also becomes slightly dull in colour. The heads bearing the fruit are often beaten to remove the latter, or they are individually broken out by hand. In order to facilitate the extraction of the fruit kernels, the fruits are usually buried in the ground in a pit lined with plantain leaves. Here they remain for from three weeks to a month, during which time decomposition is set up. The subsequent quality of the oil is dependent upon the degree to which this is allowed to proceed, rancid and thick oils resulting when it has been overdone. On the other hand, the higher the state of decomposition the greater is the facility for separating the fibrous pulp from the stones. On removing the fruits from the ground they are placed in an open vat (Fig. 15) and pounded by a number of people using long poles, after which they are covered up for several hours in order that the oil may drain into the small well shown at the side. Several consecutive poundings are applied, until the fibrous pulp is quite separated and most of the oil has drained out, after which the stones are combed out with the fingers, and the pulp is placed in a bag and pressed on a horizontal bar until the oil flows from it into a pit below. The oils from these extractions are boiled and cleared, and the residual pulp is often placed in the boiling pot so as to extract as much oil as possible. This is the method employed at the Krobo Plantations, but the operation varies slightly in different districts.

Kernel Oil—The value of the kernel for the extraction of oil was recognised at a much later date than the pericarp, although, in a few places in the Gold Coast, oil had probably been expressed from kernels for local consumption for some time. Among the Krobos the medicine-men prevented the trade in kernels from becoming established for several years, but they were finally overruled by the chiefs. A large and increasing trade in kernels continued for a number of years, but this has fallen off to a small extent more recently. The shell of the variety of kernel which appears to be the most common in this country is usually thick, and the laborious work of cracking each stone individually between two stones, in such a manner that the kernel is extracted in an unbroken state, prevents a larger quantity being prepared for sale, and results in much waste. Nut-cracking machines have been brought into the country, and are said to prove successful to some extent, but the native is not in a position to use machinery, and most of the material shipped is extracted in the primitive method mentioned. Cf. Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vols. vii., viii. and xv. (1909-17). Before the cracking can be accomplished without breaking the interior, the kernel requires to be exposed to the sun and thoroughly dried. Kernel oil prepared in a native way is of two kinds, one which expressed without heat being white, whilst that made from the roasted kernels is dark brown. Both are made by pounding and grinding the kernel into fine meal, the extraction of the one being effected by cold and the other by boiling water.

In 1916 a Special Committee was appointed to consider the position of the palm-kernel trade, chiefly with reference to the protection of the newly-established British oil-crushing industry against German competition; and it was considered advisable to recommend the imposition of a differential export duty of £2 per ton on all palm kernels from British West African ports. The Colonies concerned imposed the duty at the rate mentioned and in some instances have since supplemented it by a direct revenue-producing tax.

Commercial Uses.—The chief commercial uses of the oils are for the manufacture of soap, candles, and glycerine, some qualities of palm oil being made use of in the manufacture of tin plates. With improved methods the supply of palm oil and kernels could be largely increased.

Varieties of Oil Palms.—In 1907 information was obtained from the Imperial Institute that a variety of oil palm was being propagated in the Kameruns the fruit of which contained a thin-shelled kernel and was called “Lisombe.” Further investigation in the British West African countries led to the discovery that a number of well-marked varieties of Elæis guineensis were distinguished by the natives, and were called by distinct names. Among these one possessed a thin-shelled kernel, and, together with about eight others, has been under investigation at the Imperial Institute, with the object of ascertaining their respective merits. The thin-shelled “Lisombe” and the “Gamopale” varieties from the Kameruns have recently been tried experimentally in the Gold Coast, and the advantages they possess over the other kinds have been clearly established. From the descriptions given below of the more important varieties found on the Gold Coast, it will be seen that particulars of the comparative weight of the fruit crop and the quality of the oil yielded are required to determine the relative values. In addition the proportions of fruit- and kernel-oil of each as well as the facilities for extracting the kernel must be considered.

A reference is given below to six varieties, which have been fully examined at the Imperial Institute. The native names are given, and the percentages have been calculated for comparison, from the more elaborate figures which have been published (Bulletin Imperial Institute, vol. vii. [1909], p. 366; cf. also vol. xi. [1913], p. 208).

The characteristic variations of each variety are as follows:—

1. “Abe-pa.” Fruit large, orange-red, with or without black tip, pericarp thin, nut large with thick shell. This is the commonest form in the country, and is probably identical with the variety found in Sierra Leone.

2. “Abe-dam.” Fruit of irregular shape, fairly large, bright red, pericarp slightly thicker than the last, nut large with a thick shell. This is not uncommon.

3. “Abe-tuntum.” Fruit moderately large, dark purplish-black, pericarp very thin, and nut with thick shell. Uncommon.

4. “Abe-bobe.” Fruit usually rather small, red and black, pericarp thick and soft, nut with a thin kernel (easily broken in the teeth). Trees rather scarce. This is probably identical with the “Lisombe” variety from the Kameruns.

5. “Intermediate form between 2 and 4.” Similar to the last but with a thicker shell to the nut.

6. “Seedless kind.” A very rare kind, nearly corresponding with the “Difumbe” variety from Angola, which, however, possesses a kernel but no shell.

The following are the percentages based on the total weight of the fruit, in each case taken as 100:—

Nos. 4 and 5 seem to be most valuable from a commercial standpoint, although at present Nos. 1 and 2 are the most commonly used, owing to the comparative scarcity of the first two mentioned. No. 6 is chiefly interesting from a botanical aspect, and is probably incapable of reproduction. The sacred palm known in the Gold Coast as “Abe-ohene,” and identical with “Ope-Ifa” of Southern Nigeria, belongs to a new species called E. Thompsonii, Chev., but the fruits are not employed for the extraction of oil.

OTHER OIL SEEDS.—Experiments were conducted at the Imperial Institute in 1908 with the kernels of the “Crabnut” (Carapa procera, D.C.). The kernels were found to contain nearly 50 per cent. of oil, which was reported to be worth about £20 10s. per ton, but the residual cake could not be used for feeding purposes, owing to the presence in it of a bitter constituent, and, on account of the rather low manurial value, was estimated as worth only £2 per ton (Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. vi., 1908, p. 362).

The oil seemed to be well suited for soap-making, but would not be suitable for lubricating or for edible purposes. The nut does not occur in such profusion as to warrant profitable exportation from localities where the oil palm is found.

TIMBER. Mahogany.—The most valuable and commonly exported timber is that known in the European and American markets as “African Mahogany.” The value of that shipped from the Gold Coast in 1913 was estimated at £366,000.

Several red woods are included under the name of Mahogany, but the best quality is said to be obtained from Khaya senegalensis, a large tree of the Natural Order Meliaceæ. This tree is known by the native (Fanti) name of “Dubini.” In the same language the names “Okumankra” and “Akwabohori” are applied to two trees which are said to be exported as Mahogany, but of these the identity has not yet been determined.

Other Timber-trees.—The “Odum” tree (Chlorophora excelsa) produces a hard and useful wood, which is much used in the forest region, but is not often shipped (Fig. 19). In the dry country of the Northern Territories Pseudocedrela Kotschyi may be found of value as a red wood for decorative purposes.

Among the other trees which show evidence of yielding hard and useful woods are “Ahedua” (Cyanothyrsus sp.), “Opapeh” (Afzelia africana), and “Bako” (Mimusops sp.). Information about the working-quality and suitability for export of these and other Gold Coast timbers is given in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. viii., 1910. p. 232.

The largest, and consequently the most valuable, trees belonging to the different species mentioned, are found in the western part of the Gold Coast and Ashanti, and most of the mahogany logs are shipped from Sekondi, Axim, and other places farther to the westward. The Pra and Ankobra rivers are utilised to float down the squared logs, which are then moored at the river mouths, to await shipment. The export of logs is only limited by the facilities with which they can be brought to a river or the railway, and large, valuable trees are plentiful in many of the forests, although they would be unprofitable to fell and trim in some cases, owing to their remote situations and the difficulties connected with conveyance.

KOLA.—Kola-nut is the name usually applied to the fruit of a tree belonging to the Natural Order Sterculiaceæ, and the wild as well as the cultivated forms found in the Gold Coast and Ashanti are, probably, all referable to the species Kola acuminata, R. The fruits or nuts are borne in large pods, each of which contains a variable number. The nuts themselves are irregular in form, and have an inconstant number of cotyledons, or seed divisions, varying from two to five. Some confusion seems to have been caused owing to this variation, as well as on account of the colour and shape of the nuts. In some trees they are red, in others white, and others again pink, and they may be elongate or nearly round. These, however, are not reliable as distinguishing characters, since nuts of the three colours have been found on the same tree, and even in the same pod. Analyses and commercial valuations of several varieties of kola nuts from the Gold Coast are published in Selected Reports from the Imperial Institute, Part III., “Foodstuffs” (Colonial Reports, Misc., Cd. 5137, 1910), pp. 259-61; vide also Bull. Imp. Inst., vols. x. (1912) and xvii. (1919).

In the forests to the north of Kumassi large wild kola trees are found, and the nuts are collected by the natives inhabiting the villages in the vicinity, where they are sold at from 6d. to 9d. a hundred. In other places the trees are planted, commonly on the outskirts of villages, especially in Akim and Kwahu.

Kola nuts are used in tropical Africa in the same manner as betel nuts are in Asia. Their taste is somewhat bitter, and the mastication of fresh nuts seems to increase the flow of saliva. Chewing kola nuts is resorted to by the natives in order to allay thirst, or even hunger, and for this reason they are in great demand among the inhabitants of the Sudan, to which country they are largely exported, being carried by men and donkeys in caravans, which travel from the forest limits of Ashanti through the Northern Territories. The donkeys, which are chiefly used to transport the nuts, do not generally enter the forests, but the kola nuts are packed in elongated head-loads, in bamboo or palm-stalk frames, in which form they are carried to the place where the donkeys have been left. The caravans bring shea-butter, guinea corn, cattle, and skins, which they exchange for kola.

The weight of nuts exported from the Gold Coast is about 50 per cent. above that of Sierra Leone, but, in value, the latter are worth from three to five times as much per ton. The fresh nuts are shipped to Lagos and are transported far into the interior by Haussa traders.

COTTON.—No record is available to show when the tribes of the forest country commenced to cultivate and use cotton for local requirements. It has been stated that the people of the kingdoms of the Western Sudan were acquainted with the uses of the fibre, and have cultivated the plant, from a remote period, and it is probable that contact with these people, during their expeditions against the tribes to their south, led to the adoption by the latter of cotton-growing upon the small scale in which it still remains at present. Cruickshank, writing of the Fantis in 1853, says: “They spin the thread from the cotton which grows in the country, but they more commonly make use of the thread out of English cloths, which they pick to pieces.” In speaking of the Appolonians, a tribe inhabiting the coast region near Axim, Cruickshank remarks that they “make fine grass cloths, which are strong and durable.” In Ashanti, until recently, a cloth was commonly made from the inner bark of a tree, generally supposed to be Antiaris toxicaria var. africana, which was produced by the removal of the woody portions by beating, leaving a pliable material composed of the interlacing fibres. These instances are cited to show that the value of cotton for cultivation has not been recognised by some of the large and dominant tribes in comparatively recent times. Since cotton clothing has begun to be appreciated, the necessity of growing the plant and weaving has been somewhat checked by the large imports of finished material from Europe.

Throughout the forest region occasional plants of cotton may be seen growing near villages, but the systematic cultivation of the plant is only met with on the outer northern boundary of the dense forest and in the Krepi country to the east of the Volta river. The inhabitants of the northern forest boundary are a mixed people, many of whom have probably been driven from the countries farther north, where cotton is a recognised field crop, whence they have introduced the cultivation. The adoption of cotton-growing by the Krepi tribes may be due to similar reasons, although there appears to be no evidence in support of this conjecture.

In the last-named places the seed is sown in rows on the tops of ridges, on the sides of which maize plants may be also grown, but it is not uncommon to find cotton plants growing alone. This is especially the case on the northern limits of Ashanti. The large varieties grown in these places are often left in the ground for a second season and produce two crops, the last of which is said to be inferior. No system of rotation has been observed, although it is probable that the cotton is planted during the early years of cultivation immediately following the yam crop, which is the practice in some other West African countries.

Three distinct forms or varieties of cotton are cultivated in the forest region. The first variety is usually referred to as “Green seed,” and is the commonest one grown. The lint is long-stapled and nearly white, but experiments seem to show that this form does not yield heavily. The second form is recognised by the seed being dark brown or black, without any fuzz, except a small brown tuft at the apex, which has a sharp spike. The lint of this kind is creamy white, and the plant is known as “Volta.” The third form differs in having the dark brown seeds adjoining one another, and forming a conical mass, from which it is difficult to separate the individual seeds. At the point of connection each seed bears a small light brown patch. This form is generally known to the officers at the British Cotton Growing Association plantation as “Kidney.” All these varieties are cultivated throughout the forest country, and extend to some distance beyond; being replaced in the drier parts of the Northern Territories by a small plant with a white woolly seed. No cotton in a wild state has been seen in the country, and isolated plants, found springing up in open places surrounded by forest, are generally easily traceable to formerly existing cultivation.

The “Green seed,” “Volta,” and “Kidney” cottons, which are grown in the Gold Coast, are different in habit from the American and Indian plants, although in form they are similar to Sea Island and Egyptian, having, perhaps, arisen from the same original stock. The forms mentioned as cultivated locally attain the height of from seven to ten feet in nine months from the time of planting, and the stem near the base is often thicker than a man’s wrist. The cotton bolls continue to open for three months or more, and often as many as two hundred bolls are produced on a single plant in one season. If left for a second year the bolls are generally diminished in size. The soil which appears most favourable for growth is a sandy loam containing much humus.

From January to April the bolls ripen continuously, and the cotton is placed in the sun as soon as it is picked, in order that the “Seed bugs” may be driven out. In native markets small quantities are usually exposed for sale in an unginned form throughout the harvesting season. No gin seems to be in use in the Gold Coast for native work, and the lint is pulled off the seeds by hand when a supply is required for spinning.

The greatest damage is done by “Seed bugs” of three species—Oxycarenus hyalinipennis, O. Dudgeoni, and O. gossipinus—that infest the lint as soon as the bolls open, and undergo their complete and rapid metamorphoses during the period between the opening and the throwing out of the cotton, feeding meanwhile upon the juices which they suck from the seeds. The injury caused by the puncturing of the seed often renders it unfertile. A “cotton stainer” is also common on the plants, and damages the unopened bolls by puncturing, and the lint by a yellowish stain which it makes. This insect is known as Dysdercus nigrofasciatus, and it is at least four times as large as any of the species of Oxycarenus, on which it may possibly feed to some extent.

An attempt was evidently made, in the middle of the last century, to establish the cultivation of cotton for export, and Cruickshank mentions that an association had taken the matter up, and that several of the native chiefs were beginning to give it their attention about that time. Very little success seems to have attended these efforts.

About 1903 the Government of the Gold Coast commenced the plantation of an area in the Krepi country, at a place called Anum, and, under the control of the Agricultural Department, this was transferred to a better site soon afterwards, at a place named Labolabo on the east bank of the Volta river. In addition to the extension of about two hundred acres of land, which were planted with native and American varieties of cotton, encouragement was given to the natives in the vicinity to grow more, on the understanding that their crops would be purchased from them at one penny per pound. Unfortunately no arrangements had been made to store or gin a large quantity of seed cotton, and the entire native crop could not be taken over when brought in. This seems to have induced the native growers to convey most of their cotton into Togoland, where they were able to dispose of it at a fair price. Arrangements had to be made with a local firm possessing a ginning machine, which was erected about sixty miles lower down the Volta river, by which, on payment of a certain rate, the seed cotton grown on the Labolabo plantation was ginned and prepared for shipment. It was soon recognised that the expense of transport of the seed cotton for this distance, and the price charged for ginning, prevented the production of cotton for export except at a heavy financial loss. The co-operation of the British Cotton Growing Association was asked for, in order to supply gins at Labolabo, and in 1906 three hand gins were sent from the Gold Coast Exhibition, which had just been held. The machines were much damaged in transit, and it was some time before the large stock of seed cotton, which had accumulated, could be worked off. Soon after this the Labolabo plantation was transferred entirely to the British Cotton Growing Association, and an annual grant was made by the Government to assist in the working. In 1907 a large steam-power ginnery was put up, and the native farmers again began to bring in their seed cotton for sale, but still a considerable quantity was reported to be diverted to Togoland, where the price offered was a fraction higher than that paid by the Association.

The cotton bales are transported from the ginnery by means of native canoes as far as Amedika, which is the highest point on the Volta to which small steamers can ascend, but great risk is entailed in descending the rapids between Labolabo and this place. The cost of carriage by native canoe is arranged at twenty shillings a ton, and the bales are pressed into a suitable form for conveyance.

American and other Exotic Cottons at Labolabo.—A large number of different kinds of American cottons have been tried at Labolabo, but most of them have proved unsuccessful. Those which yielded a good crop for the first year have generally been found to produce seed, which, owing to the greater susceptibility of the plants to the attacks of insects, refused to germinate in the following year. Some of the lint produced was, apparently, of excellent quality and sold well, but the necessity for the renewal of seed each year formed a serious obstacle to the establishment of a new variety. The plants from American seed are not so hardy as those from native seed, and the necessity for greater care in cultivation renders them unsuitable for use by the natives. Sea Island and various Egyptian cottons have not proved successful. See British Cotton Cultivation, by Professor Dunstan (“Colonial Reports,” Miscellaneous, Cd. 3997, 1908, pp. 28-30), and the Bulletins of the Imperial Institute, vols. vii., x., xi., xiii., xiv. (1909-16).

Attempts at Hybridisation.—In the early days of the plantation the Agricultural Department made several experiments with a view to the establishment of a cross between the native and the American plants, but the subsequent changes in the management of the plantation resulted in the disappearance of most of these; subsequently several others were attempted in 1906 and 1907 by Mr. Fisher.

In all cases plants of the “Green seed” or the “Volta” native forms were made use of as female parents, and the descendant plants partook of the characters of the native forms in every way for the first generation, but in later generations seem to have produced a number of various types, from which it is now necessary to make a careful selection. The quantity of lint yielded by the first generation of plants, from the experiments made by Mr. Fisher in 1906, is said to have reached a higher figure, per acre, than that of any other form grown on the plantation, and the quality was satisfactory; but that of the second generation appeared to be unequal in type, and could scarcely be compared for quantity owing to the unfavourable season. The American plants used for pollination in the 1906 crosses were those which have given the best results among the exotic forms planted, and are called “Black Rattler” and “Richmond.” Of the four crosses attempted in that year, that of “Black Rattler” × “Volta” was said to have proved the most successful in point of yield.

Small plots of native and American cottons have been planted at Kumassi, and experimental plants at Aburi, but the conditions have not been so favourable at these places as at Labolabo. At Obuassi, in Ashanti, an attempt was also made, but the soil seemed too stiff and the plants were not healthy. Land suitable for native cotton farms seems to be that on the west bank of the Volta river, north of the Labolabo plantation.

Valuations of Samples examined at the Imperial Institute.—The following selection of specimens of Gold Coast cottons examined and reported on at different times by the Imperial Institute will give some indication of the relative values:—

The cottons from native varieties crossed with American represent the first generation only, as in no case were the following generations found constant.

The large profits which have been made from cocoa in the forest country have caused cotton-growing to be neglected, and it seems improbable that large quantities of cotton will be exported from this region during the next few years. In the same part of the country palm oil and rubber are easily collected, and, besides being more remunerative products, require comparatively small exertion in preparation. An attempt to establish cotton cultivation upon a commercial scale, among the industrious people of the Northern Territories, was made by the British Cotton Growing Association, but the immense distances of the inhabited tracts from a shipping port and the consequent expense of transport, combined with the uncertainty of the rainfall in these ultra-forest regions, compelled the abandonment of the venture in 1916.

FIBRES.—Piassava fibre, which has sometimes been called “vegetable whalebone,” is prepared from the sheath of the lower parts of the leaf-stem of a tree belonging to the Natural Order Palmæ, and classified as Raphia vinifera, P. Beauv. This tree is found growing in the vicinity of streams, and occurs commonly in the forest regions near the coast.

The natives prepare the fibre, which is sold in the European markets under the name of “Piassava,” by cutting the stem-sheaths and steeping them in water for a considerable time until the fibrous strands are easily separated by beating. After being extracted in this manner they are dried in the sun. Only a small quantity is exported from the country, but it is a more important article of export from Sierra Leone and Liberia. As the specific name denotes, wine is extracted from the tree, by tapping the standing or felled tree, in the last case with the aid of fire.

On the estate of the African Plantations, Ltd., near Axim, a fibre of excellent quality, commercially allied to jute, has been prepared from the stems of a herbaceous plant, which was supposed to be Triumfetta semitriloba, Linn., but which has since been determined at Kew to be T. cordifolia var. Hollandii, Sprague. The plant belongs to the same Natural Order as Indian jute—namely, Tiliaceæ. A description of this fibre is given in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. vi. (1908), p. 241.

This species has been observed commonly in a wild state in the forests near Sekondi and Axim, but does not seem to be present in the interior of Ashanti or in the country towards the Volta river.

Experiments made at the estate of the African Plantations, Ltd., are said to show that the best fibre is obtained from stalks which have been retted or steeped in water for five days, but it will probably be found that the period required for the operation is dependent to a great extent upon the age of the stalks used.

The fibre may be prepared by stripping the bark layers from the soaked stalks and beating these upon the surface of the water until the actual bark is removed, when the fibre may be dried in the sun; being finally picked over to get rid of the small remaining bark particles.

The plant exhibits some advantages for cultivation over jute, in that it may be cropped twice in one year and treated as a perennial. Collection of the wild growths would be unsatisfactory for the production of the fibre upon a large scale, owing to the time occupied in searching for the plants, but it seems probable that the plant would repay planting, especially if some better method of extraction were devised.

The composition, quality, and commercial value of a large number of fibres obtained from plants indigenous to, or cultivated in, the Gold Coast are discussed in Selected Reports from the Imperial Institute, Part I., “Fibres” (Colonial Reports, Miscellaneous, Cd. 4588, 1909), pp. 43, 51, 84, 89, 90, 115.

SILK.—A species of wild silkworm is commonly distributed throughout the forests to the north of Kumassi, and has been identified as Anaphe venata. The silk cocoons of this species and those of Anaphe infracta are used in Nigeria for spinning into yarn for weaving the “Saṉyaṉ” cloths of that country, but no use is apparently made of them in Ashanti. The worms live in small colonies, and form their cocoons in a common envelope of silk, from which two or three somewhat tubular processes project to enable the moths to emerge when the time arrives. The food plant of the silkworm has not been definitely ascertained, but, as the cocoons are found on a large number of herbaceous plants as well as trees, it seems probable that several plants are eaten by it. The quality of the silk is said to be good, and the colour is usually a golden or light brown.[3]

COPAL.—The tree which produces this resin, often miscalled “gum,” which is commercially known as “Accra copal,” occurs throughout the forests of Ashanti and Akim, and has not yet been specifically determined. Investigations have shown that it is allied to Cyanothyrsus oblongus, Oliver, which yields the “Ogea” resin of Lagos, and which belongs to the Natural Order Leguminosæ. The flowers obtained from the Ashanti trees are of a similar construction to those of Cyanothyrsus.

Locally the resin is commonly used for torches and for the preparation of a scented pigment called “Krobo,” which is used for elaborating patterns upon the skin, being commonly employed by the Akim people for this purpose. For export the chief value is for the preparation of varnish.

The quantity exported reached 178 tons in 1907, after which it declined, and now no longer reaches a significant figure. The overwhelming interest attracted by cocoa has led to its disappearance. Cf. Selected Reports Imperial Institute, pt. ii., “Gums and Resins” (Col. Rep. Misc., Cd. 4971, 1909), pp. 172-5; Bull. Imp. Inst., vol. xii. (1914), p. 220.

The copal-yielding trees are generally of immense size, and the resinous liquid may be observed exuding from the main trunk as well as the branches, in such a way as to form elongated “tears” or slabs, which harden on exposure to the air. When these become brittle they are broken off by wind and fall to the ground. Often the flow of resinous liquid seems to be so profuse that quantities reach the ground and form what is termed “fossil copal,” owing to the fact that it is dug from the ground beneath the trees.

There is evidence to show that in some instances the original flow of the resinous liquid is caused by deep borings in the sap wood made by insect larvæ (probably Coleoptera—beetles), signs of which are commonly apparent on old trees, which yield the most copal. Specimens of branches, which have been tunnelled by these larvæ, have been collected, exhibiting all the cavities filled with hardened resin.

Compared with the copal produced by Copaifera Guibourtiana, a tree which is found in Sierra Leone, the Ashanti product is much inferior, although the price paid renders it sufficiently valuable for collection and export. Several different types of the Accra copal are known, some of which appear to be of less value than others, although apparently yielded by the same tree. That which is deemed preferable is clear and pale yellow; milky pieces should be sorted out, as they are valued at a lower figure. Blocks have been obtained which weighed over twenty pounds. Sorting is said to have been adopted by some of the local merchants, and as high a price as 60s. per cwt. is reported to have been obtained for sorted copal.

COPRA.—Some special attention has been given to the extension of the copra industry on the coast, and it will be observed that the average annual exports have nearly doubled during the last eight years. The coconut (Cocos nucifera) is found on the greater part of the coastline, and the dried contents of the nut constitute the product known as copra. (Cf. Oil Seeds and Feeding Cakes, Imp. Inst. Monograph, 1915.) No use is apparently made of the fibrous covering of the nuts, which is exported from other parts of the world under the name of coir. Locally the nuts are cut down in an unripe condition, and the “milk” from the interior is used as a drink.

DYES AND PIGMENTS.—Camwood is the trade name applied to the wood of a tree known as Baphia nitida, Afzelius, belonging to the Natural Order Leguminosæ. It has been suggested that the bright red colouring-matter is produced by decomposition on exposure to air, the material shipped from different places in West Africa being apparently in this condition, but investigations in other parts of West Africa show that the fresh wood is frequently used in making the colouring-matter. A very small quantity is exported from the Gold Coast, but the natives make some use of it for staining different materials.

Indigo.—This is prepared from two or three species of Indigofera, which are found growing near villages, but the process of preparation in the Gold Coast does not appear to have been recorded, though probably similar to that employed in the other West African countries.

The resin from the copal tree, mentioned above, is crushed, together with the bark of a tree called “Krobo,” in Akim especially, and the balls formed from this mixture are rubbed down, with the addition of a little water, into a fine sort of lather, when a greenish-grey-coloured thin paste is procured. With this designs are traced upon the body and arms as an adornment for women, the resin imparting to the mixture a pleasant odour.

FIELD CROPS.—The soil throughout a large part of the forest country is very fertile, and no difficulty is experienced in producing sufficient crops for local needs from a small area of ground. The usual method is to cut down a piece of forest, leaving those trees which are too large to be removed or burnt, or which may yield one of the wild fruits which is appreciated. The stumps and roots are not removed when only maize (Zea mays) is intended to be grown, but are, to some extent, when yams (Dioscorea sp.), or groundnuts (Arachis hypogea), are to be cultivated. The cut “bush” is permitted to dry in the sun for several weeks, when it is burned, and the ashes are sometimes scattered over the land. For plantations of maize, the soil is only turned up at the spots where the seed is to be put in, and very little cultivation is given for the remainder of the year, although weeding and earthing up are resorted to in a few places. For the cultivation of yams or groundnuts, the larger roots are dug out, and the whole field is dug with small hoes, the soil being scraped together into small mounds, on the top of which the yams or groundnuts are planted. In the case of the former, stakes are also put in, upon which the yams are trained to grow. In addition to this it is usual, in most places, to plant maize upon the sides of the mounds, and okra (Hibiscus esculentus) and peppers (Capsicum sp.) in various parts of the field. Guinea corn (Sorghum vulgare) is rarely seen within the forest limits. Between the mounds, at wide intervals, plantains (Musa sapientum) are generally grown, and occupy the ground after all the other crops have been removed. In the country near the coast, as well as in the Volta district, cassava (Manihot utilissima) is a common terminal crop, although it is not frequently grown in Ashanti. The length of time during which the land usually continues to yield a grain or root crop, of the kinds above mentioned, seems limited to about three years. Koko yams (Colocasia antiquorum) are planted in damp places near the villages or beside streams, and, in the Volta district, sweet potatoes (Ipomœa batatas) are cultivated to a small extent. Small gourds (Cucurbitaceæ) are cultivated in the villages, but are not common, and pineapples, paw-paws, guavas, oranges, custard apples, sour-sops, and limes may be found growing in the places near the older European settlements.

Plantains and yams seem to form the chief food of the people in the interior, but maize is largely used by those near the coast, who are better cultivators. Plantains are prepared by roasting or by chopping up and boiling. In some parts, especially in the Krepi country, the fruits are split and cut in pieces, after which they are dried in the sun. They become hard and white in the process, and can be kept for some time. Yams of several kinds are cut up after peeling, and boiled with peppers or made up with palm oil, when they form a favourite dish. They are sometimes pounded in a wooden mortar and made into balls. Maize is ground on flat or grooved stones by means of a stone hand-roller, after which the flour is made into dough and baked, a little palm wine having been added to make it rise. Cassava is treated in the same manner as yams, but the former requires long soaking before cooking. Palm oil or groundnut oil is generally used for cooking, and the pulp of the palm fruit, after the oil has been removed, is eaten. A fermented drink is made from maize, which is said to taste like weak beer, but the chief intoxicant made locally is the fermented juice of the oil and the fibre palms.

With the exception of cotton, which has been separately referred to, groundnuts appear to have been the only field crop of importance that has been exported. In 1908 a substantial figure was reached, but has since declined.

PART II.—THE NORTHERN TERRITORIES

Tribes.—The country which is included under the Northern Territories is inhabited by a number of tribes, now chiefly located in the northern half; the central portion being liable to inundation at certain times, and therefore almost unoccupied, and the southern being, perhaps, considered unsafe owing to the proximity to the warlike Ashantis. The more important tribes are the Mamprussis, under the king of Gambaga; the Gonjas, under the king of Kombe; the Walas, under the king of Wa; and two sections of the Dagombas, under the chiefs of Savelugu and Karaga (formerly under the king of Yendi, in German territory). The Lobis, Dagartis, Grunshis, Kussassis, and several others were dispersed by Samory and Barbetu in 1896 and 1898, and have now only nominal chiefs. (See Colonial Reports—Annual, No. 566, “Northern Territories of the Gold Coast,” 1907, p. 8.) The Moshis, whose country extended into the northern limits of the Northern Territories, were employed at one time as native levies, but since they were disbanded they have interfered with the tribes on the Gambaga-Kumassi road, in the Sapari Hills, and made trading by that route unsafe. (See Colonial Reports, loc. cit., p. 10.) Steps have been taken to expel them from the country, and it is hoped that the people living in the hills, who are said to be good agriculturists, will now come into closer contact with civilisation. The Dagombas are apparently the most industrious tribe in the country, and they seem to be numerous.

Although there does not appear to be any actual record of the invasion of the eastern part of the country by the Mohammedan rulers of the Western Sudan, they are said to have overrun the pagan countries between themselves and the region of dense forest on several occasions. In 1483 the kingdom of Mossi (Moshi) was conquered by Sonni Ali, King of Songhay, who was a native of the Eastern Sudan, and had come from Egypt. Two years later he extended his conquest through the mountain territory to the south and far into the pagan belt. Sonni Ali was followed by Askia, who again overran Mossi, in order to abolish paganism and establish the Mohammedan faith. This occurred in about the year 1500, and doubtless the people learnt to adopt the improved methods of agriculture which the conquerors had introduced into the Western Sudan from Egypt and the east. Many of the tribes have relapsed completely into paganism, but amongst others there is a mixture of Mohammedanism and paganism, which is evidence of the impression made. More recently, Samodu Almami of Ouassoulou, generally known as Samory, was driven from his kingdom in the Western Sudan by the French, and overran the Northern Territories with his Sofa troops; subduing Wa, Bole, and the whole of the western part of the country. It is, however, unlikely that agriculture was further improved by his invasion, as large tracts of country were devastated to feed his troops.

FIELD CROPS.—The soil is of a lighter and more sandy nature than that generally found in the forest region, but it is well adapted for the cultivation of many different kinds of crops, notably Guinea corn, millet, groundnuts, and cotton, while it is less satisfactory for yams. The latter are consequently of smaller size.

Cotton.—The cotton grown by the Dagombas is whiter than those found in the south, and the plants are of small stature; the species has a wide-opening pale flower, and has been grown at Labolabo from seed procured in the Northern Territories. The cotton fields are planted with regular lines of plants, and the ground appears to be exclusively used for the crop during the season. The seed is sown upon ridges which have been constructed from the high conical mounds, upon which the combined crop of millet (Pennisetum spp.) or Guinea corn and yams were grown in the previous year. Cultivation is performed by means of a short-handled hoe, and the ridges are kept clear of weeds and grass until the crop is ready. The seed-cotton is sold in the markets, and is in good demand for the manufacture of native cloths. No insect pests have been observed attacking the plants, and it is probable that if an outside demand were established for the produce a large quantity could be grown. It might be necessary to introduce a better variety than that at present cultivated, as this yields a rather coarse and short staple. If cotton from this part of the country is to become an article of export, the difficulties at present experienced in transport will first have to be overcome; indeed, this applies to all the produce capable of being grown in the country. The navigation of the Volta river and the two main branches seems to suggest a means which might be employed, for, although there are several rapids in the course from Daboya and Bole to Labolabo, only one is impassable for canoes, even in the dry season. This rapid is at Krachi where a short line has been laid for transporting loaded canoes. The cost of the hire of canoes for making the journey would probably be prohibitive, but if the British Cotton Growing Association undertook the carriage by their own canoes of the salt and stores required by the merchants who have commenced business in Yeji and Tamale, the freight on these in the journey upwards would probably be found to cover the cost of bringing cotton down-stream, and the export trade in it could be developed in this manner. The British Cotton Growing Association made an effort to act upon the suggestion made here, but discontinued their operations in July 1916, when they handed over their buildings, at Tamale, to the Government, as it was shown that under the existing conditions and with but one European representative to further its interests, cotton-growing in the Northern Territories could not hope to become a remunerative export business (Colonial Reports, Northern Territories, G.C. 1916, No. 956). The irregularity of the rainfall is a matter which must be borne in mind in any future attempts to develop the industry here, but the possibilities of providing artificial irrigation should not be overlooked, as large tracts of flat land exist near the White Volta river capable of becoming fertile under proper irrigation and drainage.

Other Field Crops.—Yams are grown as a primary crop on mounds, and three different kinds are common, probably referable to D. alata, D. sativa, and D. colocasiæfolia, the last being what is termed the water yam and the first the winged yam. Guinea corn is the most important food grain grown, but millet is sometimes planted. A red species of sorghum (S. guineensis, var. robustum) is cultivated on a small scale for use in staining leather, but is not used for food. Rice (Oryza sativa) is grown in the vicinity of the large rivers, but is said to suffer damage from elephants and hippopotami. The variety seems to be similar to the red rice grown in the Gambia and Sierra Leone. Very little maize is planted, but some is grown near Salaga. Cassava is only seen in the south near the forest boundary, and groundnuts are not plentiful, owing, perhaps, to the fact that cooking oil is obtainable from shea butter trees, which are common in a wild state. Pigeon peas are often planted round the borders of fields, and are left to yield more than one crop. This pea is identical with one of the common “Dhalls” of India (Cajanus indicus); the origin of the introduction is obscure. Small beans are grown as well as Indigofera spp. Sweet potatoes, okra, capsicum-peppers, sorrel-hibiscus (H. Sabdariffa), and the Fra-Fra potato (Plectranthus, sp., “Tumuku” of the Haussas) are also grown.

Fibre.—Plants belonging to two species of Hibiscus are used for the extraction of fibre for the preparation of cordage, the cleaned fibre being similar to jute. These plants grow, with perfectly straight stems, to eight or ten feet in height, bearing short thin branches with axillary flowers.

Tobacco.—The tobacco grown is used for smoking or the manufacture of snuff in many parts of the Northern Territories, and is prepared in a special manner. For smoking tobacco the green leaves are pressed into small gourds until a quantity of juice exudes, the mass being rolled in this until it assumes an oval form, in which it is sold in the markets before drying. For snuff it is ground up between heated stones until the requisite fineness has been obtained, and is then mixed with a small quantity of the powdered seeds of Monodora myristica. The tobacco fields are usually confined to small patches near houses, and wood ashes as well as sweepings are applied as a top dressing. This appears to be the only crop to which manure or fertiliser is given. The leaves always seem to be stripped off the stems at one operation, whereby old and immature leaves are mixed with mature.

GUMS.—Two species of Acacia (A. arabica and A. Sieberiana) are found, especially in the uninhabited tracts in the centre of the country, and the last named appears to yield a large flow of gum, which, however, is not collected. Examination of this at the Imperial Institute has shown it to be about equal in quality to inferior Sudan grades; A. arabica does not seem to yield gum with such frequency in this locality as elsewhere. Burkea africana and Pseudocedrela Kotschyi produce a quality of gum comparable with “Talh” from the Sudan. (Cf. Selected Reports from the Imperial Institute, Pt. II., Gums and Resins, pp. 153, 165-7.)

WOOD OIL.—By cutting deeply into the base of a tree known as “Neou” (Dagomba), and “Kawa” (Haussa), a rather copious flow of resinous liquid is induced, which, when solidified, is a resin somewhat similar, but inferior, to copal. The tree from which this is procured is botanically known as Daniellia thurifera, Oliv., and the so-called “oil” obtained was at one time shipped from Northern Nigeria under the name of African Balsam of Copaiba. It is used in the Northern Territories for lighting purposes, as well as medicinally. The tree yields a handsomely grained timber. (Cf. Bull. Imp. Inst., 1915.)

SHEA BUTTER.—A tree known botanically as Butyrospermum Parkii bears a fruit, from the kernel of which this valuable vegetable fat is procured. The fat forms the cooking oil of the ultra-forest country, taking the place of palm oil in this respect. The mode of preparation in the Northern Territories is, doubtless, similar to that employed in Northern Nigeria. The prepared butter is one of the products carried by the Haussa traders, who visit Ashanti for the purpose of purchasing kola, and is much appreciated in Kumassi, where it obtains a high price. A small quantity is carried down the Volta river by the canoes which bring salt from Adda to Yeji and Daboya. An analysis made at the Imperial Institute of Shea butter from the Northern Territories showed that the material is in no way inferior to the better-known “Shea butter” of Northern Nigeria. Cf. Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. vi. (1908), p. 370.

RUBBER.—Recently some species of Landolphia were found growing in the district of Wa and elsewhere, and, upon examination, one of these proved to be L. owariensis, P. Beauv. This was at first thought to occur plentifully, and to assume the underground habits of L. Thollonii, one of the most important sources of root or rhizome rubber in the Congo. Specimens, which were found growing near the south bank of the Black Volta river, in grass land, exhibited a trailing form of growth owing to the absence of supporting trees, but, although the plants were probably dwarfed by the annual grass fires, no development of root growth was observed in excess of that ordinarily produced within the forests. The plant is now reported to occur rather rarely in the Northern Territories; another nearly allied, though useless, species having been mistaken for it.

DYES.—For dyeing the yarn made from the native cotton, indigo is made from a species of Indigofera, or from the young leaves of Lonchocarpus cyanescens, but the process of preparation employed in this country has not been carefully observed. It is, however, probably similar to that in common use in Sierra Leone, Northern Nigeria, and the Gambia.

BEESWAX.—Bees are attracted to hive in calabashes placed in trees, the honey and wax being taken from them and sold in the markets. The bee belongs to a small variety of Apis mellifera, known as var. Adansonii. A sample of beeswax obtained at Tamale was examined at the Imperial Institute, and proved to be of excellent quality and worth £6 15s. per cwt. (Dec. 1908).

LEATHER.—Tanning of sheep and goats’ skins is done to a small extent, the same process as that described for the preparation of Kano leather in Northern Nigeria being followed. The Acacia pods used for the purpose are obtained from trees often found planted in the middle of towns.

CATTLE AND POULTRY.—A large breed of cattle with a dorsal hump exists in the Salaga district, and a straight-backed smaller kind throughout the country to the north. Although “tsetse” flies of three species are common on the stream banks, the cattle seem to be healthy for the most part, and often form part of a caravan travelling to the forest belt, where a good price is said to be obtained for them from the Ashantis. They are usually killed for food very soon after entering the forest, where they can no longer be kept free from the attacks of the three species of “tsetse” (Glossina morsitans, G. palpalis, and G. pallidipes), all of which seem to attack them. Horses are bred in some parts, but not to a large extent. Wire-haired sheep and goats are seen everywhere, and can be obtained in many places at a low price.

Fowls and Guinea-fowls are reared in several villages, and are carried to the south for sale. Long open-work baskets are used, and the fowls are usually conveyed as head-loads. Guinea-fowls, purchasable for threepence each in some of the villages south of Daboya, are sold at four or five shillings each near the coast. No coops seem to be employed in the villages to confine the guinea-fowls, which habitually roost upon the house-tops and which may frequently be seen in the adjoining fields. They are scarcely distinguishable from the wild birds which occur usually in the same localities. There is, however, a marked tendency on the part of the domesticated examples to acquire white feathers upon the breast or wings to a greater or lesser extent.