Remains of the small H. nipalensis occur in the cavern-deposits of Madras. Viverroids from the Miocene and Upper Eocene of Europe, which agree with Herpestes in the presence of an inner tubercle to the third upper premolar and of a hinder cusp to the fourth lower premolar, have been referred to the existing genus. The species which have been separated generically under the three following names are very closely allied to Herpestes.

Helogale,[456] premolars ³⁄₃, without diastema between first and second; soles of feet completely naked. Contains two small South-African species, H. parvula and H. undulata.

Bdeogale[457] contains also two small Ichneumon-like animals, B. crassicauda and puisa, differing from Herpestes proper in having only four toes on each foot, both pollex and hallux being absent. The orbit is nearly complete, the tail of moderate length and rather bushy.

Cynictis.[458]—Pollex present, but hallux absent. Skull shorter and broader than in Herpestes, rather contracted behind the orbits, which are large and complete behind. Face short. Anterior chamber of the auditory bulla very large. Front claws elongated. C. penicillata, from South Africa. The cæcum (Fig. 241) of this genus is longer than in any other member of the family.

All the foregoing Herpestines have the nose short, with its under surface flat, bald, and with a median longitudinal groove. The remaining forms have the nose more or less produced, with its under side convex, and a space between the nostrils and the upper lip covered with close adpressed hairs, and without any median groove.

Rhinogale.[459]—Toes 5-5. Claws of fore feet short, compressed, acute. Under surface of tarsus hairy. Palate flat. Founded on a single specimen from East Africa, R. melleri.

Crossarchus.[460]—Dentition: i ³⁄₃, c ¹⁄₁, p ³⁄₃, m ²⁄₂; total 36. Snout elongated. Toes 5-5. Claws on fore feet long and curved. Hallux very short. Under surface of tarsus naked. Tail shorter than the body, tapering. Palate flat. Fur harsh. Species: C. obscurus, the Kusimanse, a small burrowing animal from West Africa, of uniform dark brown colour; C. fasciatus; C. zebra; and C. gambianus.

Suricata.[461]—A more distinct genus than any of the above. The dental formula as in the last, but the teeth of the cheek-series remarkably short in the antero-posterior direction, corresponding with the shortness of the skull generally (Fig. 222). Orbits complete behind. Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 6, S 3, C 20. Though the head is short and broad, the nose is pointed and rather produced and movable. Ears very short. Body shorter and limbs longer than in Herpestes. Toes 4-4, the pollex and hallux being absent. Claws on fore feet very long and narrow, arched, pointed, and subequal. Hind feet with much shorter claws, soles hairy. Tail rather shorter than the body. One species only is known, the Suricate, S. tetradactyla, a small gray-brown animal, with dark transverse stripes on the hinder part of the back, from South Africa. The cæcum is short.

Galidictis,[462] Galidea,[463] and Hemigalidea[464] are names of three slight generic modifications of the Viverrine type, allied to the Herpestinæ, but placed by Mivart in a distinct subfamily, Galidictiinæ. They are all characterised by the absence of the alisphenoid canal in the skull, as well as of the entepicondylar foramen to the humerus; and are inhabitants of Madagascar. The best known, Galidea elegans, is a lively Squirrel-like little animal with soft fur and a long bushy tail, which climbs and jumps with agility. It is of a chestnut-brown colour, the tail being annulated with darker brown. The cæcum (Fig. 242) is remarkable for its comparative length and pointed termination. Hemigalidea is distinguished by the absence of rings on the tail. Galidictis vittata and striata chiefly differ from the Ichneumons in their coloration, being gray with parallel longitudinal stripes of dark brown.

Eupleres[465] is another form, also from Madagascar, which has been placed in a subfamily apart. It differs remarkably from all the other Viverridæ in the weak development of the jaws and the small size of the teeth (Fig. 243), in consequence of which it was, when first discovered, placed in the order Insectivora. Dentition: i ³⁄₃, c ¹⁄₁, p ⁴⁄₄, m ²⁄₂; total 40. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 7, S 3, C 20. No alisphenoid canal; an entepicondylar foramen to the humerus. But one species is known, E. goudoti.

Extinct Genera.—The Tertiaries of the Old World have yielded several genera allied to the existing Viverroids, some of which show decided signs of affinity with other families. Of these the Lower Miocene Amphictis appears to be nearly related to Viverra, but is distinguished by the form of the second lower molar, which is longer and has two distinct roots. Palæoprionodon, of the French Phosphorites, has a dentition very like that of Prionodon, the molars being reduced to ¹⁄₂; the skull has an alisphenoid canal and the general basal characters of the Viverridæ, but resembles the Mustelidæ in the presence of a glenoid foramen and in the position of the condylar foramen. In Stenoplesictis, of the same deposits, the dental formula is i ³⁄₃, c ¹⁄₁, p ⁴⁄₄, m ²⁄₂; and although the skull has a complete septum in the bulla, yet some of the cranial and dental features approximate so decidedly towards those of the extinct Mustelidæ, as to lead some authorities to refer the genus to that family. The most probable explanation of this resemblance is that the Musteloids have originated from generalised Viverroids allied to Stenoplesictis. The Lower Pliocene Ictitherium differs from all other Viverroids in the presence of three distinct lobes to the upper carnassial, and thereby connects the other members of the family so closely with the Hyænidæ that it is practically impossible to draw up a definition which will distinguish the two families.

The North American Eocene genera Miacis and Didymictis are generally regarded as representing a separate family—Miacidæ—with affinities both to the Viverridæ and Canidæ.

Family Proteleidæ.

Skull with no alisphenoid canal; and the auditory bulla divided into two distinct chambers. Dorsal vertebræ 15. Molars ¹⁄₁. Premolar and molar teeth very small and simple in character.

Proteles.[466]—This genus contains but a single species, P. cristatus, the Aard-Wolf or Earth-Wolf of the Dutch colonists of the Cape, an animal nearly allied to the Hyænas, but remarkably modified in its dentition, the molar teeth being very small, placed far apart, and almost rudimentary in character (Fig. 244). The canines are long and rather slender. The dental formula is i ³⁄₃, c ¹⁄₁, p and m ⁴⁄₃₋₄; total 30 or 32. Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 5, S 2, C 24. The fore feet with five toes; the pollex though short, with a distinct claw. The hind feet with four subequal toes. Claws all strong, blunt, subcompressed, and non-retractile. The general external appearance is very like that of a small Striped Hyæna, but the muzzle is more pointed and the ears larger. It has a copious mane of long hair, capable of being erected when the animal is excited, along the middle line of the neck and back. It is a native of South Africa, and is a burrowing nocturnal animal, feeding on decomposing animal substances, larvæ, and termites. Observations upon specimens in captivity indicate that it has neither inclination nor power to attack or feed upon living vertebrated animals.

Some writers regard Proteles as representing a subfamily of the Hyænidæ.[467]

Family Hyænidæ.

Skull with no alisphenoid canal; and the auditory bulla not divided by a septum into two chambers. Dorsal vertebræ 15. Molars usually ¹⁄₁, but in some fossil forms ¹⁄₂, or ²⁄₂, the second lower molar being very small; upper carnassial with three distinct lobes; lower carnassial with a large blade and small talon. No entepicondylar foramen to the humerus. This family is confined to the Old World, where it is now represented by a single genus, which, although evidently nearly related to the Viverridæ, is sufficiently distinct to be regarded as not referable to that family. The extinct Ictitherium, however, as already mentioned, connects the more generalised members of the Hyænidæ very closely with the Viverridæ.

Hyæna.[468]—Dentition in existing forms usually i ³⁄₃, c ¹⁄₁, p ⁴⁄₃, m ¹⁄₁; total 34. Teeth, especially canines and premolars, very large, strong, and conical. Upper carnassial (Fig. 245) with a very large, distinctly trilobed blade and a moderately developed inner tubercle placed at the anterior extremity of the blade. Molar very small, and placed transversely close to the hinder edge of the last, as in the Felidæ. Lower carnassial consisting of little more than the bilobed blade. Zygomatic arches of cranium very wide and strong. Sagittal crest high, giving attachment to very powerful biting muscles. Orbits incomplete behind. Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 5, S 4, C 19. Limbs rather long, especially the anterior pair, digitigrade, four subequal toes on each, with stout non-retractile claws. Pollex and hallux only represented by rudimentary metacarpal and metatarsal bones. Tail rather short. A large post-anal median glandular pouch, into which the largely developed anal scent glands pour their secretion.

The three existing species of Hyæna are divisible into two sections, to which some zoologists assign generic rank, but fossil forms show such a transition between these two types as to render any such division impracticable.

The typical or Euhyænine group presents the following distinctive features. Upper molar moderately developed and three-rooted. An inner cusp and hind talon more or less developed on the lower molar. Ears large, pointed. Hair long, forming a mane on the back and shoulders. H. striata, the Striped Hyæna (Fig. 246) of Northern Africa and Southern Asia. H. brunnea, of South Africa, in some respects intermediate between this and the next group.

The Striped Hyæna is dirty gray in colour, with narrow transverse tawny or blackish stripes on the body and legs; the length of the head and body is 3½ feet, and that of the tail, with its hair, 1½ feet. It occurs throughout peninsular India, where it is most common in open hilly districts, and in North Africa. Mr. Blanford[469] gives the following account of its habits: “It is a nocturnal animal, and although an occasional individual may be met with returning to its den in the early morning, its rambles are usually commenced after sunset and ended before sunrise. During the night it roams far and wide, and no tracks of wild animals are more common in the countries where it is found than its unmistakable footprints, very like a dog’s in shape, but with the marks of the hind feet conspicuously smaller than those of the fore feet. Unlike the Spotted Hyæna, the Striped species appears to be solitary in its habits, and it is rare to meet with more than two together. The principal food of the Hyæna consists of the carcases of animals that have died of disease or been killed by beasts of prey, and very often it carries off portions of the body to its den. I once shot one that was carrying away the hind leg of a Nilghai. The powerful jaws and large teeth are admirably adapted for crushing bones, which are consumed by Hyænas, after the flesh has been picked off by vultures and jackals. Occasionally sheep or goats, and more often dogs, are carried off by Hyænas, and the latter at all events are often taken alive to the animal’s den.” The Striped Hyæna is essentially a cowardly animal, and one that is much more silent than H. crocuta. Remains of H. striata are found in the cavern-deposits of the south of France, and also in the Upper Pliocene of the Val d’Arno in Tuscany, and in the English Red Crag.

The Crocutine group presents the following characters. Upper molar extremely small, two- or one-rooted, often deciduous. Lower molar without trace of inner cusp, and with an extremely small talon. Ears moderate, rounded. Hair not elongated to form a mane. H. crocuta, the Spotted Hyæna (Fig. 247), from Africa south of the Sahara. In dental characters as well as in its visceral anatomy, especially as regards the reproductive organs of the female,[470] this species may be considered as by far the more specialised form. The Spotted Hyæna is a larger and bolder animal than the Striped species, hunting in packs, and uttering very frequently its unearthly cry. The coloration consists of dark brown spots on a yellowish ground. It was formerly very common at the Cape. Remains of a large race of this species are exceedingly common in the cavern-deposits of Europe, where they were first described under the name of Hyæna spelæa; teeth have also been met with in the Norfolk Forest-bed, and in cavern-deposits in Madras—the latter locality being exceedingly interesting from a distributional point of view.

In addition to the remains of existing species, to which reference has been already made, there were numerous extinct forms of Hyæna in the upper Tertiaries of Europe, from the horizon of the Lower Pliocene Pikermi beds of Greece upwards. In the Crocutine group H. colvini of the Pliocene of India (Fig. 248), and H. robusta of that of Italy, appear to have been ancestral forms allied to H. crocuta; the former being distinguished by the loss of the first upper premolar. H. eximia, of the Pikermi beds, is a more generalised form, in which the first lower premolar (lost in existing forms) is retained. In the typical group, H. arvernensis and H. perrieri, of the Upper Pliocene of the Continent, approximate to H. brunnea; although H. perrieri makes a farther step towards the Crocutine group by the loss of the inner cusp in the lower carnassial. The extinct Hyænictine group, as represented by the Indian H. sivalensis and the Grecian H. græca, connects H. striata with Palhyæna. Both are characterised by the presence of a small second lower molar behind the carnassial; while H. græca also has four lower premolars. Still more generalised is the Lychyænine group; comprising H. macrostoma of India and H. chæretis of the Pikermi beds; in these forms the muzzle was longer, and the premolars much more compressed than in the existing species, thus making a very decided approach to the Viverridæ. There were four lower premolars; the lower carnassial had an inner cusp, and it is probable that there was a second lower molar; while the first upper molar was placed partially behind the carnassial. The Lower Pliocene Palhyæna hipparionum, in which the dental formula is i ³⁄₃, c ¹⁄₁, p ⁴⁄₄, m ²⁄₂, is a smaller form with long jaws and compressed premolars which approaches so closely to the Viverroid genus Ictitherium as to show pretty clearly how the Hyænas have been gradually modified from that stock.

Section Cynoidea.

Family Canidæ.

This section contains the single family of the Canidæ, or Dog-like animals, which appear to hold an intermediate position between the other two sections, retaining also many of the more generalised characters of the ancient members of the order. The structure of the auditory bulla and adjacent parts of the bones of the skull is intermediate between that of the Æluroid and Arctoid forms. In the number and arrangement of the teeth they more nearly approach the primitive heterodont type than any other existing Carnivora. A cæcum is always present, sometimes short and simple, but when long it is folded upon itself in a characteristic manner.

The characters of the base of the cranium are shown in Fig. 8 (p. 38), where it will be seen that the auditory bulla is inflated, although it has only a rudimental internal septum; the paroccipital process, although in contact with the bulla, is prominent, and there is a large glenoid foramen. In all the existing forms the humerus has lost the entepicondylar foramen; the crowns of the upper molars are triangular in shape (Fig. 251), and the blade of the upper carnassial consists of two lobes.

In the alimentary canal the cæcum (Fig. 250) is extremely characteristic. It is a simple appendage of nearly uniform width (about equal to that of the ileum) attached to the side of the canal, just beyond the ileo-cæcal valve, and with a rounded termination. In a Dog of average size it is 5 or 6 inches long if uncoiled, but it is normally folded by its mesenteric attachments backwards and forwards several times on itself by the side of the ileum, after the manner shown in the figure.

The existing Dogs form a very compact group, with numerous species closely resembling each other in essential characters, though differing considerably externally. The most marked differences are slight variations in the number of the true molar teeth, which exceed the usual number in the Cape Long-eared Fox (Otocyon), and fall short of it in some other less aberrant forms to which the names of Icticyon and Cyon have been given, and a diminution in the number of toes in the Cape Hunting Dog (Lycaon), which has 4-4, instead of 5-4 as in the remainder of the family. After taking these away, there remain a great number of animals called Dogs, Wolves, Jackals, and Foxes, varying from one another only in the characters of the tail, ears, fur, form of the pupil, and some trifling peculiarities of skull and teeth, upon which some authors have divided them into many genera. These divisions are, however, extremely difficult, if not impossible, to define, on account of the numerous gradual transitions from one form to the other.

Canis.[471]—It appears on the whole convenient to retain all the species, with the exception of Otocyon, Icticyon, and Lycaon, in the old genus Canis, the most prominent characters of which are the following. Teeth, usually i ³⁄₃, c ¹⁄₁, p ⁴⁄₄, m ²⁄₃; total 42. The absence of the last upper molar (m ³⁄), alone distinguishes this from the generalised dentition of heterodonts, and this tooth is occasionally present in one species (C. cancrivorus). In certain Asiatic species (C. primævus and its allies), which on this account have been separated to form the genus Cyon of Hodgson, the last lower molar ⁄m₃ appears to be constantly absent. The milk-dentition is di ³⁄₃, dc ¹⁄₁, dm ³⁄₃; total 28,—the first permanent premolar having no predecessor. The teeth of both permanent and milk or temporary series are figured on p. 26, Fig. 3, from the outer aspect, while the woodcut 251 shows the palatal aspect of the hinder upper teeth. The upper carnassial (p ⁴⁄) consists of a stout blade, of which the anterior lobe is almost obsolete, the middle lobe large, conical, and pointed backwards, and the posterior lobe in the form of a compressed ridge; the inner tubercle is very small, and placed quite at the fore part of the tooth. The first molar is more than half the antero-posterior length of the carnassial, and considerably wider than it is long; its crown consists of two prominent conical cusps, of which the anterior is the larger, and a low broad inward prolongation, supporting two more or less distinct cusps and a raised inner border. The second molar resembles the first in general form, but is considerably smaller. The lower carnassial ⁄m₁ is a very large tooth, with a strong compressed bilobed blade, the hinder lobe being considerably the larger and more pointed, a small but distinct inner cusp placed at the hinder margin of the posterior lobe of the blade, and a broad, low, tuberculated talon, or heel, occupying about one-third of the whole length of the tooth. The second molar is less than half the length of the first, with a pair of cusps placed side by side anteriorly, and a less distinct posterior pair. The third is an extremely small and simple tooth, with a subcircular tuberculated crown and single root.

The cranium (Fig. 249) is more or less elongated, the facial portion tapering forwards and compressed. The jaws are elongated, and the zygomata moderately strong. The postorbital processes of the frontal short, leaving the orbit widely open posteriorly. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 7, S 3, C 17-22. Clavicles present, but very rudimentary. Limbs of moderate proportions, digitigrade. Feet short; five toes on the fore foot, the pollex much shorter than the others, and not reaching to the ground. Four toes on the hind foot, the hallux being represented by a rudiment of the metatarsal.[472] All the toes are provided with exserted, non-retractile, slightly curved, and blunt claws, which, being exposed, become worn at the tips. Tail moderate, or rather long, generally somewhat bushy. The pupil of the eye, when contracted, is in some species round, in others elliptical and vertical.

This extensive genus may be considered as truly cosmopolitan. One or more species occur in every part of the American continent from Greenland to Patagonia and the Falkland Isles; and similarly, in the Old World, Europe, Africa, and Asia, with most of the large islands adjacent, and even Australia, have their wild Dogs, though in the last case they may belong to a feral race, introduced originally by man. They are generally sociable animals, hunting their prey in packs. Many species burrow in the ground; none habitually climb trees. Though mostly carnivorous, feeding chiefly on animals they have chased and killed themselves, many, especially among the smaller species, eat garbage, carrion, insects, and also fruit, berries, and other vegetable substances. The species are very numerous, and, as in most other large genera, very ill-defined, few zoologists agreeing as to which of the many slightly different modifications should be considered as local varieties and which true species. Perhaps the best cranial character by which the different members of the genus can be distinguished is that pointed out by Burmeister, viz. that in the animals generally called Dogs, Wolves, and Jackals the postorbital process of the frontal bone is regularly smooth and convex above, with its extremity bent downwards, whereas in Foxes this process is hollowed above, with its outer margin (particularly of the anterior border) somewhat raised. This modification coincides in the main with that upon which Professor Huxley[473] has based his division of the group into two parallel series, the Thooids or Lupine forms and Alopecoids or Vulpine forms, which he characterises by the presence of frontal air-sinuses in the former, which not only affect the external contour but to a still greater degree the shape of the anterior part of the cranial cavity, and the absence of such sinuses in the latter. The pupil of the eye when contracted is round in most members of the first group, and vertically elliptical in the others, but more observations are required before this character can be absolutely relied upon. The form and length of the tail is often used for the purposes of classification, but its characters do not coincide with those of the cranium, since many of the South American Canidæ have the long bushy tails of Foxes and the skulls of Wolves. Taking into account various combinations of these and other minor characters, the species may be arranged in the following groups, which some authors have considered as of generic importance.

A. Thooid or Lupine Series.—The typical group, or Canis proper, contains the largest members of the genus, the true Wolves of the northern parts of both Old and New Worlds (C. lupus, etc.), the Jackals of Southern Asia and Africa (C. aureus, mesomelas, etc.), and the various breeds of the domestic Dog (C. familiaris). The true Wolves are (excluding some varieties of the domestic Dog) the largest members of the genus, and have a wide geographical range, extending over nearly the whole of Europe and Asia, and North America from Greenland to Mexico, but they are not found in South America or Africa, being replaced in both of these continents by various species of Jackals and Foxes. As might be expected from this extensive range, and the varied character of the climatic conditions of the countries they inhabit, they present great diversities of size, length and thickness of fur, and coloration, although resembling each other in all important structural characters. These differences have given rise to a supposed multiplicity of species, expressed by the names of C. lupus, C. lycaon (Central Europe), C. laniger and C. niger (Tibet), C. pallipes (India), C. occidentalis, C. nubilis, C. mexicanus, etc., of North America, but it is very doubtful whether some of these ought to be distinguished as other than local varieties. Mr. W. T. Blanford, in his recent work on the mammals of India, regards the two forms from Tibet mentioned above as inseparable from C. lupus. In North America there is a very distinct smaller species, called the Coyote or Prairie Wolf (C. latrans); and perhaps the Japanese Wolf (C. hodophylax) may also be distinct, although, except for its smaller size and shorter legs, it is scarcely distinguishable from the common species. Though generally distributed throughout the Indian peninsula, the Indian Wolf (C. pallipes), which is rather smaller and slighter than C. lupus, is not found in Ceylon, nor in Burma and Siam. The ordinary colour of the Common Wolf is a yellowish or fulvous gray, but specimens have been met with almost pure white and others entirely black. In northern countries the fur is longer and thicker, and the animal generally larger and more powerful than in the southern portion of its range; this being especially the case with the Tibetan races. The habits of the Wolf are similar everywhere, and it is still, and has been from time immemorial, especially known to man in all the countries it inhabits as the devastator of his flocks of sheep. They do not catch their prey by lying in ambush, or stealing up close to it and making a sudden spring as the Cat tribe do, but by fairly running it down in open chase, which their speed and remarkable endurance enable them to do; and usually, except during summer, when the young families of cubs are being separately provided for by their parents, they assemble in troops or packs, and by their combined and persevering efforts are able to overpower and kill even such great animals as the American Bison. It is singular that such closely allied species as the Domestic Dog and the Arctic Fox are among the favourite prey of Wolves, and, as is well known, children and even full-grown people are not unfrequently the objects of their attack when pressed by hunger. Notwithstanding the proverbial ferocity of the Wolf in a wild state, many instances are recorded of animals taken when quite young becoming perfectly tame and attached to the person who has brought them up, when they exhibit many of the ways of a Dog. They can, however, rarely be trusted by strangers.

The history of the Wolf in the British Isles and its gradual extirpation has been thoroughly investigated by Mr. J. E. Harting in his work on Extinct British Animals, from which the following account is abridged: To judge by the osteological remains which the researches of geologists have brought to light, there was perhaps scarcely a county in England or Wales in which, at one time or another, wolves did not abound, while in Scotland and Ireland they must have been still more numerous. The fossil remains which have been discovered in Britain are not larger than, nor in any way to be distinguished from, those of European wolves of the present day. Wolf-hunting was a favourite pursuit of the ancient Britons as well as of the Anglo-Saxons. In Athelstan’s reign these animals abounded to such an extent in Yorkshire that a retreat was built by one Acehorn, at Flixton, near Filey, wherein travellers might seek refuge if attacked by them. As is well known, great efforts were made by King Edgar to reduce the number of wolves in the country, but, notwithstanding the annual tribute of 300 skins paid to him during several years by the king of Wales, he was not altogether so successful as has been commonly imagined. In the reign of Henry III the number of wolves in some parts of the country was sufficient to induce the king to make grants of land to various individuals upon the express condition of their taking measures to destroy these animals wherever they could be found. In Edward II’s time the king’s forest of the Peak, in Derbyshire, is especially mentioned as infested with wolves, and it was not until the reign of Henry VII (1485-1509) that wolves appear to have become finally extinct in England. This, however, is rather a matter of inference from the cessation of all mention of them in local records than from any definite evidence of their extirpation. Their last retreat was probably in the desolate wolds of Yorkshire. In Scotland, as might be supposed from the nature of the country, the wolf maintained its hold for a much longer period. There is a well-known story of the last of the race being killed by Sir Ewen Cameron of Lochiel in 1680, but there is evidence of wolves having survived in Sutherlandshire and other parts into the following century (perhaps as late as 1743), though the date of their final extinction cannot be accurately fixed. In Ireland, in Cromwell’s time, wolves were particularly troublesome, and said to be increasing in numbers, so that special measures were taken for their destruction, such as the offering of large rewards for their heads, and the prohibition (in 1652) of the exportation of “wolf-dogs,” the large dogs used for hunting the wolves. The active measures taken then and later reduced their numbers greatly, so that towards the end of the century they became scarce, but, as in the case of the sister island, the date of their final disappearance cannot now be ascertained. It has been placed, upon the evidence of somewhat doubtful traditions, as late as 1766.

Remains of C. lupus are common in the European Pleistocene; while the Indian Pliocene C. cautleyi, of which the upper teeth are shown in Fig. 251, was probably the ancestor of C. pallipes. C. neschersensis, of the Upper Pliocene of France, was a smaller extinct Wolf. A lower jaw from the French Pleistocene, described under the name of Lycorus, has only three premolars, but evidently belongs to the Wolf.

The Jackals are smaller than the Wolves, with the bushy tail about one-third the length of the head and body, and the carnassials relatively shorter as compared with the tubercular molars. The Common Jackal (C. aureus, Fig. 252) has a very wide distribution, ranging from South-Eastern Europe through South-Western Asia to India and Burma, and also occurring in Northern Africa; being replaced in the Ethiopian region by closely allied species. Remains indistinguishable from C. aureus occur in the Pliocene Siwaliks of Northern India. Jackals hunt at night in packs, uttering the piercing cries so well known to all who have resided in countries where these animals are found.

The origin of the Domestic Dog, with its numerous breeds, has been the subject of much controversy. Some naturalists believe it to be a distinct species, descended from one that no longer exists in a wild state; others have sought to find its progenitors in some one of the wild or feral races, either of true Dogs, Wolves, or Jackals; while others again believe that it is derived from the mingling of two or more wild species or races. It was probably the earliest animal domesticated by man, and few if any other species have undergone such an extraordinary amount of variation in size, form, and proportion of limbs, ears, and tail—variations which have been perpetuated and increased by careful selective breeding. The Dingo or Australian Dog is met with wild, and also as the domestic companion of the aboriginal people. Dogs were also in the possession of the natives of New Zealand and other islands of the Pacific, where no placental mammals exist naturally, on their discovery by Europeans in the last century.

The second group includes the wild Dogs of the south-east of Asia, described as Cyon, and distinguished by slight modifications as C. rutilans, C. dukhunensis, and C. javanicus, and differing from the above in wanting the small last lower tubercular molar. This difference reduces the number of the teeth to the same as in Viverra, and is precisely paralleled by some of the species of the extinct genus Cynodictis mentioned below. The muzzle is shorter than in other species, and the facial profile is slightly convex instead of concave. The mammæ are also 12 or 14 instead of the normal 10; while there is long hair between the foot-pads. Wild Dogs inhabit not only the whole of the Oriental region, but extend into Central Asia as far north as the Altai and Amurland (C. alpinus). C. dukhunensis ranges from the forest regions of peninsular India to Gilgit and Western Tibet, where it must inhabit open country. In their general form, and more especially the shortness of the legs, these animals come nearer to the Jackals than to the Wolves. They hunt their prey in packs. Remains of species of this group occur in the cavern-deposits of the Continent, and have been described under the name of C. europæus.

A group for which the name Lycalopex has been proposed comprises certain South American Canidæ, distinguished from Canis proper by their longer tails and Fox-like aspect:—C. cancrivorus, C. brasiliensis, C. melampus, C. vetulus, C. fulvicaudus, C. azaræ, C. magellanicus, C. griseus. The last three have been further separated (under the name of Pseudalopex) on account of slight differences in the relative size of the molar teeth, and of their pupil being elliptical when contracted. Nyctereutes (one species, C. procyonides, from Japan and North-East Asia) has no claims to generic distinction but such as are founded upon its long loose fur, short ears, and short bushy tail, which give it some superficial resemblance to a Raccoon.

B. Alopecoid or Vulpine Series.—The Vulpine group (Vulpes) includes the true Foxes, of which there are numerous varieties and species, spread over North America, Eurasia, and Africa, which have been described under the names of C. vulpes (Vulpes alopex), the common Fox of Europe; C. niloticus, adustus, and variegatus, Africa; C. flavescens, montanus, bengalensis, japonicus, corsac, Asia; C. fulvus, macrurus, velox, North America. Mr. Blanford[474] concludes, however, that the Asiatic C. flavescens and C. montanus, and very probably the North American Cross-Fox (C. fulvus) are merely local races of C. vulpes, distinguished by certain peculiarities of coloration. The English Fox measures about 2 feet in length exclusive of the tail, which is about a foot long. Its fur is of a reddish-brown colour above, and more or less white beneath; the back of the ears and the fore part of the limbs are black, and the tip of its bushy tail is white. Its long, sharp muzzle, erect pointed ears, and sharp eye, give it the well-known appearance of sagacity and cunning. The Fox is a solitary animal, inhabiting a burrow, which it either excavates for itself, or obtains by ejecting the badger or the rabbit. So averse, indeed, is the Fox to dig for itself, that when foiled in its attempts to dispossess the badger, it has been known to take up its quarters with the latter, and it can be induced to make its home in artificial burrows constructed of stone and earth for the purpose of facilitating the operation of digging out the cubs. The Fox also occurs in woods, and even in the open country without burrows, lying in its “cover” by day and stealing forth at night in search of its prey. Remains of the Common Fox occur not unfrequently in the Pleistocene deposits of Europe. The Indian C. bengalensis is a very much smaller and well-marked species.

The tail of the above forms is clothed with soft fur and long hair, uniformly mixed; from them Baird distinguishes, under the name of Urocyon, other species which have a concealed erect mane of stiff hairs along the upper line of the tail. These have also a shorter muzzle and a wide space between the temporal crests; they are C. virginianus and C. littoralis, both from North America. The Arctic Fox (C. lagopus, genus Leucocyon, Gray) has the tail very full and bushy and the soles of the feet densely furred below. Its colour changes according to season from bluish-gray to pure white.

Certain small elegant African Foxes (C. zerda, famelicus, and chama), with very large ears and corresponding large auditory bullæ, have been separated under the name of Fennecus, and are commonly known as Fennecs.

The earliest undoubted occurrence of the genus Canis seems to be in the Upper Miocene of Switzerland, where it is represented by the Fox-like C. œningensis. In the Upper Pliocene of France C. megamastoides is said to be allied to the Foxes and Jackals, but with some signs of affinity to the extinct Cynodictis. In the Pliocene Siwaliks of India there occurs C. curvipalatus, of the size of a small Fox, which appears to have certain resemblances to Otocyon.

Lycaon.[475]—This genus resembles in most of its characters the Dogs of the Lupine series, but the teeth are rather more massive and rounded, the skull is shorter and broader, and there are but four toes on each limb, as in Hyæna. The one species, L. pictus, the Cape Hunting Dog (Fig. 253) from South and East Africa, is very distinct externally from all the other Canidæ. It is nearly as large as a Mastiff, with large, broadly ovate erect ears, and singularly coloured, being not only variable in different individuals, but unsymmetrically marked with large spots of white, yellow, and black. It presents some curious superficial resemblances to Hyæna crocuta, perhaps a case of mimetic analogy. It hunts its prey in large packs. A lower jaw from a cave-deposit in Glamorganshire, which agrees with that of the existing form in the presence of an anterior cusp to the last lower premolar, has been made the type of a distinct species (L. anglicus).

Icticyon.[476]—The Bush-Dog (I. venaticus), from Guiana and Brazil, is a species about the size of a Fox, with close hair, and short legs and tail, distinguished from all other Dogs by the reduction of the molar teeth to ¹⁄₂, and their comparatively small size. The lower carnassial is also characterised by the loss of the inner cusp of the blade, and the secant form of its hind talon; both these features indicating a specialised type. Remains of the Bush-Dog are found in the Pleistocene cavern-deposits of Brazil, and were originally described under the name of Speothos.