[655] Hammer, Geschichte, ii. 236: “The priesthood proper ... is perhaps in no other state of less influence, but the teaching body is in no other kingdom (except China) of greater weight and political importance.”
[656] Ricaut, 211.
[657] Spandugino, 219; Menavino, 72 ff.; Nicolay, 121. Ricaut, 261 ff., knew eight or ten orders, which he describes at some length.
[658] Hammer, Geschichte, i. 154, ii. 357, iii. 67; Postel, i. 112.
[659] Heidborn, 269-274.
[660] Ricaut, 201.
[661] In Ricaut’s time (p. 204) one of the Kaziaskers was regularly chosen for this position.
[662] D’Ohsson, iv. 500. Heidborn, 215, says that the title Sheik ul-Islam was first bestowed by Murad II upon the mufti of Adrianople, who was removed to Constantinople by Mohammed II after the capture; that Mohammed assigned the title Reis ul-ulema, or chief of the Ulema, to this officer, but that he reached great dignity only under Suleiman.
[663] Spandugino, 113.
[664] Postel, i. 118.
[665] Spandugino, 112.
[666] La Broquière, 181; Ramberti, below, p. 247; Geuffroy, 241; Trevisano, 122; Busbecq, Life and Letters, i. 116; Bernardo, 364.
[667] Heidborn, 216.
[668] Ricaut, 200-202.
[669] Hammer, Geschichte, ii. 401.
[670] Ibid. 536 ff.; Heidborn, 215, note 16.
[671] D’Ohsson, v. 104 ff.
[672] See Hammer, Geschichte, iii. 278 ff.; and Appendix III below. Heidborn, 215, contributes further details as to the great Mufti’s advance in the cursus honorum of the Moslem Institution. He shows that he began his legal studies at 27 years of age, continued them until his 45th year, was made Kazi of Brusa, then of Constantinople, and in his 50th year (944 A.H.) Mufti. The last statement seems to be erroneous; for Hammer (as above) says that he became Mufti in 952 (1545 A. D.), after eight years’ service as Kaziasker. Probably, then, he was made Kaziasker in 944 and Mufti in 952. After thirty years in that eminent position, he died in 982 (1574).
[673] Busbecq, Life and Letters, i. 116-117.
[674] Ricaut, 202.
[675] This description, based on D’Ohsson’s account, may represent at some points a development later than the time of Suleiman. No sixteenth-century writer seems to have gone into the organization of the system in detail. Heidborn, 220 ff., treats with fulness the past and present judicial system of the Ottoman Empire.
[676] Hammer, Staatsverwaltung, 380.
[677] Postel, i. 117.
[678] The Subashis in particular were closely connected with the administration of justice. Postel, i. 120, says loosely that Pasha, Kazi, and Subashi all mean the same thing. Chesneau, 47, says that the sultan had two judges in every city, a Kazi for civil cases and a Subashi for criminal cases. This is certainly incorrect, for the Sacred Law provided for many criminal cases, while Kanuns dealt with many civil cases. The Sanjak Beys and Beylerbeys held Divans, or councils, resembling on a lesser scale the sultan’s Divan (Heidborn, 143, note 17); following the analogy of the Kaziaskers, the Kazi of the city in which each such officer resided would sit in his Divan and decide the cases that came up touching the Sacred Law, and would also hold independent court at other times. In cities of lesser importance, the Kazis appear to have been the heads of the restricted municipal governments (ibid., note 16).
[679] A scheme of the higher offices in the judicial system in the early nineteenth century is given in Hammer’s Geschichte, ix. 1-10.
[680] Kazi is the Turkish pronunciation of the Arabic word kadi, judge; Molla is the Turkish form of the Arabic word maulā, lord.
[681] Junis Bey (below, p. 265) and Postel, i. 119, state that the Kaziaskers nominated all Kazis. Junis Bey says: “Two Cadilescher talismans, one of Greece and the other of Natolia or Asia, and they each have revenues of 6 or 7 thousand ducats a year: who are executors of their law ... it is they who appoint the Kadis or podestas of all the lands of the Seigneur.” Ramberti (below, p. 247) and Nicolay, 119, say that the consent of the pashas was necessary also.
[682] Ricaut, 205.
[683] Hammer (as above, p. 216, note 4) gives a list of 39 judges of rank above the Kazis proper, and 243 Kazis of Rumelia, 280 of Anatolia, and 34 of Egypt. The total is thus 557 Kazis proper, and 596 judges in all. In the subsequent list of 247 positions in Rumelia as rearranged under Mahmûd II, five places in the Crimea are mentioned as seats of Kazis in partibus, but neither list appears to mention any in North Africa.
[684] Spandugino, 188; Postel, i. 127.
[685] Spandugino, 213; D’Ohsson, vi. 333.
[686] Postel, i. 126. This officer is called by Postel Mortasi.
[687] Menavino, 66; Spandugino, 211.
[688] Postel, i. 120, 124; Nicolay, 119. There was no regular organization of the procedure of appeal; nevertheless it was allowed (Heidborn, 389).
[689] Hammer, Staatsverfassung, 100. See above, p. 203, note 1.
[691] Spandugino, 211.
[692] Ibid.
[693] The Arabic words kadi al asker signify judge of the army. In the sixteenth century the pronunciation seems to have been kadi l’esker; nowadays it is kazi asker. The burdensome duty of holding court continually is mentioned in Spandugino, 96; D’Ohsson, iv. 581.
[694] Postel, i. 123. Heidborn, 141-143, note 15, quotes from Ypsilanti an interesting description of a session of the grand vizier’s court.
[695] Postel, i. 127, iii. 8.
[696] Ibid. iii. 9.
[697] Hammer, Geschichte, iii. 11.
[698] Ibid. 61.
[699] Ricaut, 3.
[700] Garzoni, 430. See also Morosini, 273.
[701] Postel, i. 124. Matters were distinctly worse in Ricaut’s time (pp. 140-141).
[702] Spandugino, 114.
[703] It has been suggested (Morosini, 273) that the promptness of justice had a connection with the early military character of the Moslems.
[704] Spandugino, 211, 255.
[705] Postel, i. 127, iii. 87.
[706] Ibid. i. 117.
[707] Ibid.
[708] The use of cannon is perhaps the most conspicuous example.
[709] Halil Ganem, i. 201.
[710] Spandugino, 207: “And the Turkish lords generally, as well great as small, study only to build churches and hospitals and to enrich and make hostelries for lodging travelers, to improve the roads, to build bridges, to construct baths, and several other charitable works which they do in such a way that I suppose the Turkish lords are beyond comparison greater alms-givers than our Christian lords; and in proportion as they have good zeal, they use great hospitality. They voluntarily lodge Christian, Turk, and Jew alike.” See also Morosini, 270.
[711] He built seven mosques (Hammer, Geschichte, iii. 456), four colleges at Mecca (ibid. 459), four colleges around the Suleimanieh Mosque (ibid. 470), and endowed them all, etc.
[713] Ramberti came overland from Ragusa on his journey from Venice to Constantinople.
[714] The writer seems not to have observed that these groves were cemeteries.
[715] The writer evidently did not know that this Egyptian obelisk consists of a single stone. It actually rests on four bronze cubes.
[716] This was the support of the tripod of the priestess at Delphi. The heads have been broken off, and are now in the treasury of the Old Seraglio at Constantinople.
[717] This was overthrown at the downfall of Ibrahim in 1536.
[718] This remarkable statement is probably the source of Nicolay’s similar idea (p. 77). The Danube is more than two hundred miles distant from Constantinople.
[719] Rather, of the Sea of Marmora.
[720] Marrani: Jews and Moors of Spain, baptized, but remaining true to their own religion.
[721] This statement and the following one are certainly exaggerations.
[722] Either the writer’s geographical knowledge or the text is in confusion. The description here, as well as that which follows, cannot be made to fit the map.
[723] The boundary between Europe and Asia is now, of course, placed far to the east of the Don.
[724] Compare Junis Bey, below, pp. 272, 273.
[725] Michaloghli.
[726] More accurately, Othman, beginning in 1299, ruled 27 years; Orchan, 33 years; Murad I, 30 years; Bayezid I, 13 years; Mohammed I (Chelebi) in undisputed rule 8 years, after 11 years of civil war; Murad II, 30 years; Mohammed II, 30 years; Bayezid II, 31 years; Selim, 8 years, until his death in 1520, when Suleiman came to the throne.
[727] Celeby and Calepino are forms of Chelebi, the Gentleman, which was an appellation of Mohammed I; these three names, therefore, refer to the same person.
[728] At this point the writer begins to follow the pamphlet of Junis Bey.
[729] Seraglio Point is thrust out into the Bosphorus just before it meets the Sea of Marmora.
[730] The land on which Mohammed’s palace was built had belonged to the church of St. Sophia under the Byzantine Empire. See above, p. 202.
[731] Junis Bey speaks of eight youths, but names six, as below.
[732] After Junis Bey. The word here is “Chiuchter.”
[733] There were two treasurers of the household, bearing the same name. One labored within the palace, and one without. See above, p. 127.
[734] There is confusion here. The Kapu Aghasi and the Seraidar-bashi were the same person. The chief of the gate is rightly called the Kapuji-bashi. Junis Bey shows similar confusion (below, p. 263). See above, p. 126; and Redhouse, 1435.
[736] “Capoglano.” The derivation is faulty; the literal meaning is “gate-youth.”
[737] “Gianizzerotti.” Junis Bey, below, p. 263, speaks of 400 gardeners, which is probably more nearly correct.
[738] “Protogero.” Kiaya, or by transliteration Ketkhuda, is the Turkish word. See above, p. 96, note 4.
[740] The chief taster.
[742] Intendant or steward of the kitchen.
[743] The word translated “feudal income,” or “feudal grant,” is “timar.” See above, p. 100 ff.
[744] This sentence was evidently inserted after the previous part of the paragraph had been written. See below, p. 255.
[745] “Centola.”
[746] This remark seems to contain a comparison between the relation of the pope to the Roman emperor and that of the Mufti to the sultan. Such a comparison would, however, be inexact. See above, p. 209.
[749] “Spezzate.”
[750] That the other Chaushes were slaves not of the Chaush-bashi, but of the sultan, is shown by the amount of their pay. See Junis Bey’s testimony below, p. 265.
[751] Junis Bey, below, p. 266, says that the Kiaya of the Janissaries has 300 ducats of feudal grant per year, which would equal about 15,000 aspers.
[752] “Giannizzeriasis.”
[753] “Livreri.”
[754] “Bracchi.”
[755] “Assareri.”
[756] This Slavonic word seems to be used here simply in the sense of “army officers.”
[757] “Immensi.”
[758] This is an error. Probably the number intended is three hundred. Junis Bey, below, p. 267, gives two hundred and fifty.
[759] Only two officers should be named here. The lieutenant (Protogero) and the Kiaya were the same. Junis Bey gives this correctly.
[760] Under each Agha, or chief officer.
[761] The Kiaya and the lieutenant are the same.
[762] This derivation is from a secondary meaning; the primary meaning is “foreign youth.” See above, pp. 98, 99, note 1.
[763] “Bracor-bashi.”
[764] This should read “Kiaya and secretary.”
[765] “Brene.”
[766] This is the common report in Western writers as regards the Peiks. See Menavino, 155; Nicolay, 100.
[767] Kiayas and secretaries.
[768] This refers to those whom Junis Bey, below, p. 268, calls Zainogiler, a body of lancers, who are here erroneously classed with the falconers. Junis Bey’s figures are 20,000 in all, 1000 receiving pay in money. Are they the Voinaks (above, p. 131)?
[769] Junis Bey, “cursor,” a messenger or porter.
[770] Literally, “intendant of the town.”
[771] Junis Bey says 57.
[772] Usually called by Western writers “Dragoman.”
[773] This was the “Old Palace” of Mohammed the Conqueror, and stood where the Seraskierat, or War Office now stands.
[774] Suleiman is said to have been faithful to Roxelana after he had made her his wife. See above, p. 56.
[776] This should read 100,000: ibid.
[778] At the meetings of the Divan.
[780] “Che fanno fattione.”
[782] Of the Turkish possessions in Asia.
[783] “Maldac.”
[785] More correctly, Irak Ajam, north-central Persia.
[787] Herzegovina.
[788] “Cangri.”
[789] “Hallayce” or “Allaye.”
[790] The ancient Magnesia.
[791] The plain of Albistan.
[792] “Alziden.”
[793] Evidently the writer intended to fill these in, but failed to secure the names.
[794] This amounts to about four million ducats a year.
[795] The reference is, of course, to the feudal Spahis and their officers, who then received according to this estimate two-thirds of the revenues of the empire.
[797] The object of this appendix is to set forth in outline the features of the Mogul government, in order to suggest comparison with that of the Ottoman Empire. Completeness neither of research nor of exposition has been attempted. A list of the authorities consulted, most of which are secondary, will be found at the end of the appendix.
[798] Lavisse and Rambaud, Histoire Générale, vi. 879.
[799] Leopold Ranke, The Ottoman and the Spanish Empires, Preface, 1.
[800] The report at this page, though ascribed to Jacopo Soranzo, 1581, and so referred to in the foregoing footnotes, was really written in 1582 by some one in his suite.