The prize of 1902 has been awarded:

Mommsen, Theodor, Professor of History at the University of Berlin, born 1817, died November 1, 1903: “the greatest living master of the age in the art of representing history, taking into especial regard his monumental work, Römische Geschichte.”⁠[22]

France was the first country to be honored by the Nobel prize in literature; Germany was the second. In 1902, Theodor Mommsen, whose records of scholarship included history, law and archeology, was the chosen candidate. He was eighty-four years old and lived for only a year after the award. While there was gratification among his countrymen and friends in other lands, at his recognition and this high honor, yet there were adverse comments in several journals about the perversion of the intent of Nobel’s will. The recipient had finished his work; the award could never quicken him to further research or expression of idealism. This choice showed the intention of the Swedish Academy to consider “literature” in a broad sense, including contributions of scientific value as well as those of artistic merit.

Garding, in Schleswig, was the birthplace of Mommsen; his school days were spent at Kiel. Before he was thirty years old he had been employed by the Berlin Academy to decipher and examine Roman inscriptions in Italy and France, because of marked accuracy and zest in research. He combined the reading of law with that of history and, in 1848, was called to the department of law at Leipzig University. Always fearless in political convictions and ardent in Liberalism, he was obliged to retire from this University because of active participation in the political issues of 1848-1849. Two years later he was called to professorship of Roman law at Zürich; after service here for two years he accepted a similar position at Breslau. In all these places he was recognized as magnetic in the classroom and inspirational in his contact with University students from all parts of the civilized world. In 1858, he went to the University of Berlin as Professor of Ancient History and there extended his influence among scholars and lay readers.

Although specific in his interests and a student of deep earnestness, he had read and traveled widely; as conversationalist he excelled, informed upon topics in almost every branch of learning and activity. To him has been attributed the oft quoted sentence, “Each student must choose his special field of labour but he must not imprison himself within its confines.”⁠[23] He was called “the modern Erasmus” because of his versatile knowledge. He wrote with facility and grace, as well as vigor, whether his theme was a monumental History of Rome, or a journalistic discussion of current affairs. In political creed he belonged to the National Liberal Party. He was, however, never partisan in his ultimate purposes and hopes for future union of factions. He opposed Bismarck in his tenets and sometimes won over him in courts of law and in the Prussian House of Delegates, by his keen, logical mind. At the same time, he admired the Chancellor very much and said, “What a calamity it is for us all that political animosity should deprive us of the privilege of mixing socially with such a man!” On principle, he was opposed to British attitude towards the Boers, and gave his allegiance to the revolutionists. Again, he deplored the strained relations at times between his country and England and asserted, “What a pity that two great nations of kindred race should remain at loggerheads!”⁠[24] He detested slavery and considered the Civil War in the United States “a holy crusade.”⁠[25]

More than one hundred volumes of original writing and translations from the Latin and Germanic languages are listed under Mommsen’s name in large German libraries. Edward A. Freeman, a critic and historian of international repute, has called Mommsen “the greatest scholar of our times, well-nigh the greatest scholar of all times.” His writings show mastery of law, languages, customs, archeology, coins, inscriptions and monuments, that are of inestimable value to students. He was editor of Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum which was issued by the Berlin Academy of which he was secretary for many years. To the average reader, however, the name of Theodor Mommsen will always be associated with his History of Rome, written 1854-1856, which still maintains its authenticity and popularity. As a writer, Mommsen was always illumining, with a vivid style; he was often dramatic. He touched descriptive scenes with grace and color but he was convincingly realistic in his portrayal of events and characters. He unfolded a large canvas but he kept a true focus and threw a strong light upon both individuals and group-pictures, from the early days of Rome to the death of Julius Cæsar.

Although his masterwork was entitled History of Rome, he explained, in the Introductory Chapter, that he intended “to relate the history of Italy, not simply the record of the city of Rome.” While the Romans represented the most powerful branch of the Italian stock, yet they were only a branch—but this civic community of Rome gained sovereignty over Italy and the world of its day. Like the historian Freeman, Mommsen insisted upon “the unity of history,” the similarity of human nature from 1800 B. C. to modern times. Few writers have surpassed him in revivifying historical characters. He had strong likes and dislikes, prejudices which he could impress upon the reader, although he was generally justified in his statements and balanced in his estimates. The portrait of Cicero, which “was bitten with vitriolic energy,” as Mr. Buchan has said, in Some Eighteenth Century Byways and Other Essays, has been most widely quoted; it is less impartial than his characterizations of Hannibal, Sully, and Cæsar. By temperament and political bias, Mommsen was an admirer of Julius Cæsar; he has given to him a living portraiture.

The pictorial Chapter IV in Book III, descriptive of Hannibal’s Passage of the Alps, is a world-famous extract from this History of Rome. In the same chapter is the analysis of Hannibal’s character, so often quoted: “He was primarily marked by that inventive craftiness, which forms one of the leading traits of the Phœnician character; he was fond of taking singular and unexpected routes: ambushes and stratagems of all sorts were familiar to him; he studied the character of his antagonists with unprecedented care.... The power which he wielded over men is shown by his incomparable control over an army of various natives and many tongues.... He was a great man; wherever he went, he riveted the eyes of all.”⁠[26]

There is history of dramatic incident, written with pictorial skill, in such passages as the Battle of Cannæ, the story of the Gracchi, and the Crossing of the Rubicon. The breadth of Mommsen’s interests are suggested by such later chapters as those on Roman Religion, Manners, and Literature and Art. While he was deeply interested in the past, and informed about its aspects and personalities, he was alert in all movements of the present and their trends. He looked to the future with prevision and optimism. In the Introductory Chapter to his famous History of Rome he contrasts modern history with past cycles of culture which will be repeated and adds: “And yet this goal will only be temporary: the grandest system of civilization has its orbit, and may complete its course; but not so the human race, to which, just when it seems to have reached its goal, the old task is ever set anew, with a wider range and with a deeper meaning.”⁠[27] In spirit, Mommsen was entitled to rank as an idealist, a worker “to benefit mankind.” In literary achievements he richly deserved the Nobel prize; his researches had enriched human knowledge beyond those of other scholars; his writings appealed to the reader of ordinary mentality as well as to the more intellectual; his vision and faith in human progress were undimmed.

Rudolf Eucken

German Philosopher

The prize of 1908 has been awarded:

Eucken, Rudolf, Professor of Philosophy at the University of Jena, born 1846: “because of the sincerity of his search for truth, the penetrating power of thought, the clarity of vision, the warmth and force of interpretation with which he has, in his numerous works, cultivated and developed an ideal world philosophy.”⁠[28]

In 1908, six years after the Nobel prize came to Mommsen, it was again awarded to a German scholar, Rudolf Eucken. By translation and lectures in countries other than his own, this recipient was no stranger to readers of current literature. Born in 1846, in Aurich, East Friesland, Eucken was younger than the majority of the earlier winners; he accomplished much writing and lecturing after the honor had been given. His mature life was devoted to a struggle against the materialistic philosophy of his day. He was a worthy winner of a prize for “the most distinguished work of an idealistic tendency” in his country. His incessant purpose was expressed in his autobiography: “My reminiscences tell about all of the struggle to prevent the externalization of life. This externalization is not, it is true, the defect or fault of one particular nation; it is found in every nation and a radical change is needed in each.... Every man who shares the conviction that a spiritual reformation is needed will follow with a kindly sympathy the modest efforts which are recorded in my reminiscences.”⁠[29]

His native province, East Friesland, is an agricultural and trading region in Germany, near Holland, with occasional fisheries as industry. His birth town, Aurich, is the commercial and social center. The boy’s childhood was somewhat sad; he was the first child born to his parents after ten years of marriage, and his father died when the lad was five years old. He had a series of misfortunes in his infancy and youth: his throat was badly torn in the effort to extricate a curtain-fastener which he nearly swallowed as a baby; he had scarlet fever and wrong treatment, so that he was threatened with blindness for a time but recovered; a younger brother’s death added to the family gloom.

Rudolf Eucken inherited studious inclinations. His father, spending his days in the postal service, was a fine mathematician. His mother (daughter of a clergyman who was a leader of Radicalism) was well-read in science and ambitious for her son; the latter records that she was, also, a practical housewife. After the father’s death their finances were low and the mother took lodgers to add to her income. She was determined that Rudolf should be well educated, that he should become a philosopher or scientist. He recalls his debt to her in his reminiscences. At the gymnasium at Aurich he showed interest in mathematics and in music. A strong influence of those plastic days was his teacher, Reuter, who was forced to retire by the bureaucracy because of his liberalism. Other professors who left traces upon his development were Letze and Teichmüller. For a time he was at the University of Berlin. After experimental teaching he was called to Basel as professor of philosophy. His mother went with him but their plans for happy years together were shattered by her death.

Basel was at this time a small University with about one hundred and fifty students; Eucken came into close contact with these in the classroom and outside activities. Already he had begun to write studies upon philosophers of classic days, Aristotle and others. In 1873 he accepted a call to Jena University where he was brought into comradeship with such brilliant associates as Kuno Fischer, Haeckel and Hildebrand. The issue, in 1878, of Eucken’s book, Fundamental Ideas of the Present Day (or The Fundamental Concepts of Modern Philosophic Thought) aroused sudden interest among scholars of every country in this daring, idealistic philosopher of Jena University. The basic idea was to emphasize the harmonious relations of history and criticism. At the request of President Noah Porter of Yale University, a translation of this book into English was made by Professor M. Stuart Phelps; thus American readers became acquainted with this German scholar who was to enter later into friendly contact with academic organizations here.

By his marriage, in 1882, to Irene Passow, Eucken increased his prestige among intellectual and social leaders. He says that his wife “was not one of the learned women,” but that she had intellectual interests, gifts in art, and fine administrative ability. Her mother was the daughter of the noted archeologist, Ulrich, born in Athens; thus Eucken’s circle of friends widened among scientists and historians. He continued to write books with cumulative power, like The Life of the Spirit, Contributions to the History of Modern Philosophy, The Problem of Human Life as Viewed by the Great Thinkers, Life’s Basis and Life’s Ideals, Christianity and the New Idealism.⁠[30] Many of his own countrymen, who were materialistic philosophers or monistic evolutionists, criticized Eucken severely; he declared the German press “ignored him.” He popularized religious philosophy, especially under such titles as The Truth of Religion, and Can We Still Be Christians? He was invited to deliver lectures in Holland, France, England, and America.

Some of these later books followed the award of the Nobel prize in 1908. He was called “the winning dark horse of that year”; he said that the honor came as “a great surprise” to him. As further recognition he was made a member of the Swedish Academy of Sciences. The comments in the German press were noticeably restrained beside the enthusiastic tributes in France, Holland, and England. In 1911 he went to England and, later, to America as academic lecturer; he was “exchange professor” and gave lectures at Harvard University, Columbia University, the Lowell Institute at Boston, and Smith College. His wife and daughter came with him to America and were guests in the homes of Professors Moore and Münsterburg at Cambridge. The reader of his Reminiscences will smile at some of the comments upon Americans and his reception here. In Germany, with the arrival of “an exchange professor” and his first lecture, there is a demonstration of welcome, with formal program and the presence of notables in statescraft as well as letters. He found no such condition at Harvard University. He presented himself to President Lowell and was told, “You may begin at once.”⁠[31] By contrast he says, with naïveté, President Butler of Columbia University gave a banquet in honor of Eucken and Bergson, who were lecturing in New York at the same time.

Among Americans whom the German scholar met with friendly contact were Andrew Carnegie and Roosevelt. He says of the latter, “With Roosevelt I had a very spirited conversation on American idealism and its future, in which he gave proof of considerable historical knowledge.”⁠[32] He found Americans, as a class, alert but not well informed on European affairs, especially German history. After he returned from America, he planned a trip to Japan and China, hoping to carry into the Orient his principles of idealistic philosophy; he sought coöperation of all nations in “solving problems of life.” The war interfered with this project and caused him deep depression. He tried in every way to appeal to the less materialistic traits of his people. In 1915, he wrote The Bearers of German Idealism, a book which sold copies by the tens of thousands and supplemented, in a way, his earlier volume, The Historical Significance of the German People. He found the war “the saddest moment in German history”; he felt the nations were disloyal to themselves and sentiments of honor. His daughter, a musician of rare gifts, lost her lover during the war. In his sons, one a physician and another a political economist, Eucken saw examples of many of his idealistic influences.

The writings of Eucken, especially those of religious trend, have been popular in America, as well as England. Several of his essays have been collected and translated by Meyrick Booth. In the Harper’s Library of Living Thought is the translation by Lucy Judge Gibson and W. R. Boyce Gibson of his Christianity and the New Idealism (1909 and 1912). The Meaning and Value of Life had one of the same translators; Joseph McCabe, who translated the autobiography, has rendered, also, Socialism: an Analysis (1922). Among other books in constant demand at libraries are Religion and Life, the lectures which he gave in London, Oxford, and elsewhere, 1911, and Ethics and Modern Thought: a Theory of their Relations, which were the Deems lectures, delivered in 1913 at New York University. These are translated by Margaret von Seydewitz from the German manuscript. Can We Still Be Christians? with its challenging title (1914) is a careful, tolerant study of historic Christianity, an advocacy of a religion which will adapt itself to the demands of daily life. Spirituality and morality must combine to form a high level of progress and the Church must become “a repository of the facts and tasks of life itself.”

Comparisons have often been made between Eucken and two other modern thinkers and writers on philosophy of kindred motive—Adolf Harnack and Henri Bergson. The former, who has been professor at Leipzig and Berlin, author of such stirring books as What Is Christianity? and History of Dogma, has the German background while Bergson, in his Creative Philosophy has written an epoch-making book with dissimilar but potent deductions. The two men, Eucken and Bergson, have been discussed in a discriminating essay by E. Hermann who thus summarizes the message of the Nobel prize winner in philosophy: “Eucken stands before us today as perhaps the greatest thinker of our age and the protagonist of a new idealism which satisfies our demands for moral reality as no idealistic philosophy has ever done, and as the teacher who has most fully and boldly developed the religious implications of ethical idealism. His philosophy of life is an insistence upon the supremacy of the spiritual. His defence of freedom is a doctrine of spiritual liberty rooted in the saving initiative of God and our dependence on Him. His vindication of our personality is the rescue of the free, God-centered personality from the thralldom of a self-centered individuality.”⁠[33]

Especially interesting is the Nobel Lecture, delivered at Stockholm, March 27, 1909, by Eucken, translated by Alban G. Widgery, Cambridge, 1912 (W. Heffer and Sons). As an introductory thought, Eucken emphasizes that we are living in an age when tradition has become a subject of doubt and new ideas are struggling to guide our lives. The two terms, “Naturalism or Idealism,” which form the title of this Nobel address, have become confused in meaning and have caused misunderstandings. To Eucken, Naturalism means “faith in man’s relation to Nature”; Idealism accepts this faith but asks if this is the whole of life or if there is not another kind of life, also. He pleads for domination of “The True, the Good and the Beautiful” in life, not merely utilitarian aspects. Life is not just a reflection of a given reality but a striving upward; it does not find another world but “it may produce one.” Idealism which deals with such expansion of daily life has no new aims to-day beyond that of classic times but it is emphasized, because “we have been driven beyond the standards of Naturalism.” The task before literature is coöperation in this effort to reach a higher level, “to purify and confirm, to make the fundamental problems of our spiritual existence impressive to us, to raise life above the mere transient culture, by the realization of something eternal.” This, as he interprets it, was the idea of Alfred Nobel in his will and awards; this has been the life purpose of Eucken as teacher and writer.